Erroneous verbalizations and risk taking at video lotteries

This study examined the effect of erroneous perceptions verbalized by a game accomplice on participants' gambling. The sample consisted of 22 men and 10 women, aged 18 and older, who did not show excessive gambling problems, but who had played video lotteries at least once during the last 6 months. The participants were randomly assigned into one of three groups, where they gambled in the presence of an accomplicewho verbalized three types of perceptions: (1) the accomplice emitted erroneous thoughts about gambling,(2) the accomplice verbalized adequate thoughts about gambling, or (3) the accomplice did not speak. Results showed that players exposed to an accomplice's erroneous verbalizations took significantly more risksthan players in the other two groups. Erroneous perceptions appear to be easily transmissible and have impacts on gambling behaviour. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Erroneous Perceptions in Generating Sequences of Random Events1

This paper reports the results of 2 studies that examine the perceptions of individuals attempting to generate random sequences. It was hypothesized that erroneous perceptions dominate probability judgment. The first study demonstrated that subjects verbalized significantly more erroneous than accurate perceptions when generating sequences of random binary events. The second study was designed both to replicate these data and to assess the role of motivation on the frequency of misconceptions. Results showed that the total number of erroneous perceptions again outnumbered accurate perceptions but, motivation did not increase the number of misconceptions. A basic error concerned subjects' inability to consider events as being independent of each other. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed in relation to the psychology of gambling.     

Group therapy for pathological gamblers: a cognitive approach

This study evaluated the efficacy of a group cognitive treatment for pathological gambling. Gamblers, meeting DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, were randomly assigned to treatment (N=34) or wait-list control (N=24) conditions. Cognitive correction techniques were used first to target gamblers' erroneous perceptions about randomness, and then to address issues of relapse prevention. The dependent measures used were the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, perceived self-efficacy, gamblers' perception of control, desire to gamble, and frequency of gambling. Post-treatment results indicated that 88% of the treated gamblers no longer met the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling compared to only 20% in the control group. Similar changes were observed on all outcome measures. Analysis of data from 6-, 12- and 24-month follow-ups revealed maintenance of therapeutic gains. Recommendations for group interventions are discussed, focusing on the cognitive correction of erroneous perceptions toward the notion of randomness.     

Responsible Gambling Tools: Pop-Up Messages and Pauses on Video Lottery Terminals

The authors examined the effect of messages and pauses, presented on video lottery terminal screens, on erroneous beliefs and persistence to play. At posttest, the strength of erroneous beliefs was lower for participants who received messages conveying information about randomness in gambling as compared to those who received pauses. Pauses also diminished the strength of erroneous beliefs, and there was no difference between the effects of pauses and messages on the number of games played. The authors discuss these results in terms of the use of messages and pauses on video lottery terminals as a strategy for promoting responsible gambling.     

Responsible gambling tools: pop-up messages and pauses on video lottery terminals

The authors examined the effect of messages and pauses, presented on video lottery terminal screens, on erroneous beliefs and persistence to play. At posttest, the strength of erroneous beliefs was lower for participants who received messages conveying information about randomness in gambling as compared to those who received pauses. Pauses also diminished the strength of erroneous beliefs, and there was no difference between the effects of pauses and messages on the number of games played. The authors discuss these results in terms of the use of messages and pauses on video lottery terminals as a strategy for promoting responsible gambling.     

A bird in hand: discouraging gambling on a slot machine simulation

Using a slot machine simulation, our laboratory has found that participants, given the opportunity not to gamble and to keep the money they have been staked, almost always choose to play the simulation. In this study, the authors investigated whether increasing the salience of the money for which participants played or increasing the response effort required to gamble the money would decrease gambling. In Experiment 1, participants in different groups were told about, were shown, or held the dollars 10 they were to be staked to play the simulation. Results showed that participants who held the money prior to gambling played fewer trials and bet less money than participants in other groups. In Experiment 2, participants in different groups were staked with dollars 5 in nickels, quarters, or their choice of nickels or quarters. Results showed that the participants staked with nickels ultimately gambled a similar amount of money as did participants staked with quarters. They did so by playing the simulation more times than the other participants. Participants staked with nickels did, however, end the session with the most money. Findings suggest ways that gambling and gambling losses can be lessened.     

Internet‐based CBT intervention for gamblers in Finland: Experiences from the field

From September 2007 to May 2011 a total of 471 participants (325 males and 146 females) signed up for an 8‐week Internet‐based cognitive behavioral therapy offered for gamblers in Finland. Sixty‐four percent of the participants were pathological gamblers (PGs) (NODS 5> points), 14% were problem gamblers (NODS 3–4 points) and 10% were at risk of gambling problems (NODS 1–2 points). Two hundred and twenty four participants completed the treatment and after the treatment period significant changes were found in the following variables: gambling related problems (NODS), gambling urge, impaired control of gambling, alcohol consumption (AUDIT‐C), social consequences, gambling‐related cognitive erroneous thoughts and depression (MARD‐S). In this sample co‐morbid alcohol consumption was stronger among males. The main finding of this study was that the onset age of gambling was associated with a greater amount of gambling‐related cognitive erroneous thoughts.     

The effects of near wins and near losses on self-perceived personal luck and subsequent gambling behavior

Which person would be most likely to continue gambling? A person who has just experienced a big win or a person who has just experienced a big loss? The answer appears often to be whichever gambler feels personally luckier. Two experiments investigated how perceptions of luck, understood as a personal quality, are affected by near, but unrealized outcomes during a game of chance. In Experiment 1, a near big loss at a gambling game heightened perceptions of personal luck relative to a near big win, even though all participants actually won the same modest amount. In addition, participants who experienced a near big loss generated significantly more downward counterfactuals than did those participants in the near big win condition. Most importantly, differences in self-perceived luck influenced future gambling behavior. Participants who experienced a near big loss on a wheel-of-fortune wagered significantly more on the outcome of a subsequent game of roulette than did those participants who experienced a near big win. Experiment 2 extended these results by testing the possible influence of a different type of near outcome and by including a control group. The discussion focuses on the emerging picture of how people understand luck.     

Connaissances et contrôle exécutif : deux facteurs cognitifs de protection contre le vieillissement de la mémoire épisodique ?

In this study we refer to Craik and Bialystok's model distinguishing the “knowledge” (cultural learning experience that forms the basis for knowledge of the world) and the “executive control” (set of operations that control and regulate cognitive performance) as two main factors susceptible accounting for the age-related negative effects on the cognitive functioning, and for a possible age-related protective effect. Thus, the aim of the present study was to examine the possible protective effect of these two factors on the age-related decline in a cued-recall task. Four age groups of participants (20–39 years, 40–59 years, 60–74 years and 75–90 years) were administered with a word-stem cued-recall test to assess episodic memory, a “vocabulary” sub-test of the WAIS-R to assess knowledge and a reading span test to assess control. Results showed an age-related effect on the episodic memory, the control performance and the knowledge measure, indicating that performance decreases with age. A GLM analysis revealed a positive effect of the knowledge and the control factors on the cued-recall performance, and interaction between age and the knowledge factor resulting from a positive effect of the knowledge level only for the youngest group of participants (20–39 years). Furthermore, results revealed an interaction between age and the control factor, indicating a positive effect of the control level for the two oldest groups of participants (60–74 years and 75–90 years). These results suggest that, contrary to the knowledge, the control factor could be an effective protection against the age-related negative effects on the episodic memory.     

An experimental investigation of the role of safety-seeking behaviours in the maintenance of panic disorder with agoraphobia.

This study evaluates the hypothesis that safety-seeking behaviours play an important role in maintaining anxiety because they prevent patients from benefiting from disconfirmatory experience. Patients suffering from panic disorder with agoraphobia carried out a behaviour test, closely followed by an experimental session, which included a brief (15 min) period of exposure during which participants either stopped or maintained within-situation safety-seeking behaviours. When the behaviour test was repeated within two days, patients who had stopped their safety-seeking behaviours during the experimental session showed a significantly greater decrease in catastrophic beliefs and anxiety than those who had maintained safety-seeking behaviour. This difference was also reflected in questionnaires measuring clinical anxiety. These results are consistent with the cognitive hypothesis.     

A randomized controlled trial of a single session motivational intervention for concerned gamblers

Motivational interviewing (MI) is a promising brief intervention for people who wish to cut down or quit gambling. The study was a randomized clinical trial that tested the efficacy of a single face-to-face MI compared with a control interview (CI) for reducing gambling behaviours in individuals who expressed concerns about their gambling. Eighty-one media recruited gamblers were followed at 1, 3, 6 and 12 months post-intervention. At 12 months post-intervention participants in the MI condition spent significantly less money on gambling per month, gambled fewer days per month, and reported significantly less distress than participants in the CI condition. Participants in both conditions showed overall reduction in gambling problem severity.     

Cognitive treatment of pathological gamblers

This study evaluates the efficacy of a cognitive treatment for pathological gambling. Five pathological gamblers were treated in a multiple baseline across subjects design. Cognitive correction targeted the erroneous perceptions towards the notion of randomness. Four subjects reported a clinically significant decrease in the urge to gamble, an increase in their perception of control, and no longer met the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling. Therapeutic gains were maintained at the 6 month follow-up. Results suggest that cognitive therapy targeting the misconception of the notion of randomness is a promising treatment for pathological gambling, a refractory disorder to most therapeutic interventions.     

Differentiated forgetting rates of spatial knowledge in humans in the absence of repeated testing

Spatial knowledge, necessary for efficient navigation, comprises route knowledge (memory of the landmarks along a route) and survey knowledge (map-like). Available data on the retention in humans of spatial knowledge show that this does not decline systematically over months or years. Here, two groups of participants elaborated route and survey knowledge during navigation in a complex virtual environment before performing route and survey tasks. Both groups were tested 5 minutes after learning and 3 months later, while one group was also tested 1 week and 1 month later (repeated testing). Performance was similar in both groups on the first testing session, remained stable in the repeated tested group, but decreased in the non-repeated tested group, especially on route tasks. These results are the first to reveal a substantial and selective decline of spatial knowledge, occurring only if there is no possibility of reactivating knowledge along repeated testing.     

Decisional styles and risk of problem drinking or gambling

Addictive behaviours indicate a deficit in self regulation, with a general predisposition towards addiction implied by comorbid addictive behaviours. To determine whether common or differing decisional styles were associated with alcohol and gambling problems university students (n = 462) completed online the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, and the South Oaks Gambling Screen to assess their alcohol use, and gambling patterns. There was some comorbidity between those at risk for alcohol and gambling-related problems, with both groups frequenting more gaming venues, however, participants at risk for alcohol related problems differed in their decisional styles from those at risk for gambling problems. A greater risk of alcohol related problems was linked to lower vigilance scores and increased tendencies towards procrastination. A higher risk of gambling problems was associated with lower decisional self-esteem and an increased proneness to hypervigilance or panic. Therefore, while a predisposition towards addiction manifests as a preference for addictive behaviour, it is associated with different decisional styles. Problem drinkers are more likely to have an avoidant decisional style, while problem gamblers are not confident in their ability to make decisions, and their decisions feel pressured.     

Differentiated forgetting rates of spatial knowledge in humans in the absence of repeated testing

Spatial knowledge, necessary for efficient navigation, comprises route knowledge (memory of the landmarks along a route) and survey knowledge (map-like). Available data on the retention in humans of spatial knowledge show that this does not decline systematically over months or years. Here, two groups of participants elaborated route and survey knowledge during navigation in a complex virtual environment before performing route and survey tasks. Both groups were tested 5 minutes after learning and 3 months later, while one group was also tested 1 week and 1 month later (repeated testing). Performance was similar in both groups on the first testing session, remained stable in the repeated tested group, but decreased in the non-repeated tested group, especially on route tasks. These results are the first to reveal a substantial and selective decline of spatial knowledge, occurring only if there is no possibility of reactivating knowledge along repeated testing.     

The effects of initial testing on false recall and false recognition in the social contagion of memory paradigm

In three experiments, participants studied photographs of common household scenes. Following study, participants completed a category-cued recall test without feedback (Exps. 1 and 3), a category-cued recall test with feedback (Exp. 2), or a filler task (no-test condition). Participants then viewed recall tests from fictitious previous participants that contained erroneous items presented either one or four times, and then completed final recall and source recognition tests. The participants in all conditions reported incorrect items during final testing (a social contagion effect), and across experiments, initial testing had no impact on false recall of erroneous items. However, on the final source-monitoring recognition test, initial testing had a protective effect against false source recognition: Participants who were initially tested with and without feedback on category-cued initial tests attributed fewer incorrect items to the original event on the final source-monitoring recognition test than did participants who were not initially tested. These data demonstrate that initial testing may protect individuals’ memories from erroneous suggestions.     

Beyond the double-jeopardy hypothesis: Assessing emotion on the faces of multiply-categorizable targets of prejudice

Prior research has shown that race influences perceptions of facial expressions, with hostility detected earlier on young male Black than White faces. This study examined whether the interplay of race and age would moderate perceptions of hostility by having participants evaluate facial expressions of multiply-categorizable targets. Using a facial emotion change-detection task, we assessed evaluations of onset/offset of anger and happiness on faces of young and old Black and White men. Significant age by race interactions were observed: while participants perceived anger as lasting longer and appearing sooner on old compared to young White faces, this relationship was reversed for Black faces, with participants perceiving anger lasting longer and appearing sooner on young compared to old Black faces. Similar results were found for perceived happiness. These results suggest that perception during cross-categorization may be more complex than the simple additive function proposed by the double-jeopardy hypothesis, such that co-activation of other stereotypes may sometimes confer a protective benefit against bias.     

Selective effects of excessive engagement in health-related behaviours on disgust propensity

The present study examined the extent to which engagement in health-related behaviours modulate disgust propensity, a purportedly stable personality trait. Participants were randomised into a health behaviour (n = 30) or control condition (n = 30). After a baseline period, participants in the health behaviour condition spent one week actively engaging in a clinically representative array of health-related behaviours on a daily basis, followed by a second week-long baseline period. Participants in the control condition monitored their normal use of health behaviours. Compared to control participants, those in the health behaviour condition reported significantly greater increases in disgust propensity after the health behaviour manipulation. This effect was most robust for contamination disgust propensity and remained significant when controlling for changes in health anxiety and disease fear. In contrast, self-disgust and anxiety sensitivity did not significantly differ between the two groups as a function of the health behaviour manipulation. Mediational analyses were consistent with the hypothesis that changes in the frequency of health-related behaviours, but not changes in health anxiety and disease fear, mediated the effects of the experimental manipulation on changes in contamination disgust propensity. These findings suggest that the purportedly stable personality trait of disgust propensity can be modulated by excessive engagement in health-related behaviours.     

Relationship of hardiness,grit, and emotional intelligence to internet addiction,excessive consumer spending,and gambling

Hardiness is conceptualized as the courage that protects against such effects of denial and avoidance of life’s stressors as internet addiction, excessive consumer spending, and gambling. Also relevant protections may be grit, and emotional intelligence (EI). This study compares the relative effectiveness of these three aspects of personality on the negative performance considerations mentioned. All the measures of personality and performance were completed by a sample of undergraduates. The results showed that, as expected, hardiness was a better negative predictor of internet addiction and excessive consumer spending than were grit and emotional intelligence. There is also some indication that hardiness was also a better protection against gambling.     

Mood state and gambling: Using mobile telephones to track emotions

Mobile telephones were used to collect data on the relationship between gambling and mood state from gamblers in the field. Seventeen gamblers called an interactive voice response system running on a computer before, during and after a gambling episode. Measures taken in this way included self‐reports of anxiety/arousal, the amount of money gambled, whether the result was a win or loss, the amount won or lost, and the type of gambling engaged in. Other measures were taken during an initial briefing session using conventional questionnaires that included self‐reports of anxiety/arousal taken in a non‐gambling situation, dissociation during gambling, and a measure of degree of impairment of control. The results showed that subjective anxiety/arousal levels were significantly higher during and after gambling than during the urge to gamble or at baselines. Losing was associated with increased subjective anxiety/arousal after play, and winning was associated with a decrease in subjective anxiety/arousal. This suggests that gambling may be a cause of increased subjective anxiety/arousal, rather than functioning to relieve it. A cluster of variables associated with impaired control and subjective anxiety/arousal levels was also identified. The method of collecting data using mobile telephones appears to be a valuable development.