Abiding by the law when it does not exist: The case of the helmet bicycle law

To improve the safety of bicycle users, some countries have enacted, or considered enacting, mandatory helmet legislation. Of course, the enactment of such legislation in a country assumes that its citizens will be well-informed of it, and consequently, will use the helmet more frequently than before. However, in the survey described in this paper we found that many people are not aware of the legislation in force in their own country, or, even if they know, they may not necessarily behave as dictated by the law. Thus, the effects of mandatory helmet legislation may be somewhat different than desired or expected. Therefore, the goal of this paper is to ascertain the role of cyclists’ knowledge of the law in their country as a mediator between the law and the actual use of the helmet. Respondents from seventeen countries participated in an international survey about cyclists' habits, and answered questions about helmet legislation, and frequency of helmet use. The results indicate that the main effect of mandatory helmet legislation on the frequency of use of the helmet is mediated by the perception that such a law exists in their country—even when in fact sometimes it does not exist.     

A model of factor analysis: Reasons for using a helmet in a sample of non-competitive Italian cyclists

IntroductionThe increased bicycle use for transport as an alternative to motorized vehicles has by now become a common occurrence in all Italian cities. Even though the benefits of using a helmet to protect against trauma in bicycle accidents have been demonstrated, its use is still limited. The objective of this study is to analyse those motivations for helmet wearing that can influence their adoption.MethodsData was gathered through an online questionnaire in collaboration with the Federazione Italiana Amici della Bicicletta (Italian Federation of Friends of the Bicycle), a recreational cyclists association.Motivations to use a helmet were investigated using a factorial analysis model. Factors were analysed through a points allocation system and compared according to gender, area of residence and whether the cyclist was a helmet-enthusiast.ResultsThe sample was made up of 1781 individuals, with a declining participation rate from North to South; 63% of respondents were men.Three factors were identified from the sample: helmet use as a safety benefit; helmets being perceived as a hindrance; and helmet used out of habit as well as to follow the virtuous example of friends and/or acquaintances during cycling outings. The major kinds of evidence are: regarding gender, differences in the perception of a helmet as a hindrance (p < 0.001) and its use out of habit (p < 0.001); as for area of residence, differences in the perception of a helmet as a hindrance (p = 0.01) and its use out of habit (p < 0.01); as regards being a helmet-enthusiast, differences were found for all the factors (p < 0.01).ConclusionsThese results contribute to understanding the scenario that affects motivational beliefs through facilitating or deterring cyclists from using a helmet during recreational cycling. The evidence suggests how to argue the helmet use discussion among Italians. In such a homogeneous population of respondents in terms of passion for cycling, opinions on helmet use were dissimilar from the point of view of both its perception and the subsequent motivation for using it.Exploring perceptions and motivations on helmet use is a key element in understanding cyclists’ behaviour in order to characterize different users. A combination of friends/peer influence, reduction in the perception of helmets as a hindrance, and reinforcing of safety could represent the starting point for planning interventions.     

The implications of low quality bicycle paths on the gaze behaviour of young learner cyclists

In a recent study, Vansteenkiste et al. (2014) described how low quality bicycle paths cause an apparent shift of visual attention from distant environmental regions to more proximate road properties. Surprisingly, this shift of visual attention was not accompanied by an adaptation in cycling speed. The current experiment investigated to what extent these findings are applicable for young learner bicyclists (aged 6–12 years). Since young learner bicyclists do not yet have mature visual and motor skills, it was expected that the implications of a poor road surface would be larger for them than for experienced adult bicyclists. In general, children looked less to the road and more to task irrelevant regions, but the magnitude of the shift of visual attention when cycling on a low quality bicycle track was similar to that of adults. Although children cycled slower than adults, they did not cycle slower on the low quality track compared to the high quality track. Overall, our results suggest that children displayed a different visual-motor strategy than adults, characterized by lower cycling speeds and a different visual behaviour, and that they responded in a similar way to a low quality bicycle path as adults.     

An observational study of restraint and helmet wearing behaviour in Malaysia

Unrestrained and unhelmeted occupants are at increased risk of severe injury or death in the event of a crash, and there is evidence that children, particularly in low and middle income countries, have low restraint and helmet wearing rates.Roadside observations of occupants of passing vehicles (7247 cars, vans and taxis and 2897 motorcycles) in nearside lanes were made at seven selected road sites located around the Klang Valley (greater Kuala Lumpur) area representing a variety of demographic locations.The findings revealed an overall low rate of seat-belt wearing in vehicles (front seat drivers: 44.6%; front seat adult passengers: 33.8%; front seat child passengers: 11.8%; rear seat adult passengers: 5.2%; and, rear seat child passengers: 5.8%). For motorcyclists, the majority of adult riders and pillions wore helmets (93.4% and 85.8%, respectively), however a substantial proportion (40%) did not fasten their helmet properly. Of children observed on motorcycles, only 30.5% wore helmets.This study shows low seat-belt and helmet wearing rates, despite enactment of legislation that requires all vehicle passengers to be restrained and for all motorcyclists to wear helmets. This was particularly evident for children (front and rear seating positions) and rear seat adult passengers. It is suggested there is a general lack of awareness of safety and the benefits of restraint/helmet use, and lack of adequate and appropriate enforcement. The implications of the findings are discussed in terms of promoting restraint/helmets use, enforcement of legislation and implementation of technologies to increase appropriate restraint/helmet use.     

Compensatory behaviour of visually impaired cyclists in everyday settings

This study investigated whether visually impaired cyclists, compared to cyclists without visual limitations, take other, potentially safer routes to destinations in their own living environment and whether they ride at a lower speed. In total, 19 matched pairs of a visually impaired cyclist and a normally sighted peer from the same neighbourhood recorded their everyday bicycle rides, using GPS action cameras. In addition, they completed an ‘assigned ride’, a ride for which only a starting and an ending point were provided by the researcher. A risk-assessment procedure showed that the route taken by visually impaired cyclists during this assigned ride was not less risky than the route taken by the normally sighted cyclists. Analysis of the everyday rides showed that, on average, cyclists with a visual impairment more frequently (i.e. for longer periods) cycled at a speed below 10 km/h compared to cyclists without visual impairment. Also, the visually impaired participants’ cruising speed was 1.4 km/h lower than that of their normally sighted counterparts. In conclusion, no evidence was found that visually impaired cyclists compensate strategically by taking different, potentially safer routes than normally sighted cyclists when riding in their own environment. They may (unconsciously) compensate tactically for their visual function limitations by riding at a lower speed when necessary. Mobility trainers in vision rehabilitation as well as road designers could apply these findings to optimise the cycling mobility of visually impaired people.     

Estimation in the power law

Most psychophysicists neglect to consider how error should be characterized in applications of the power law. Failures of the power law to agree with certain theoretical predictions may be due to bias of parameter estimates. A power law with lognormal product structure is proposed and approximately unbiased parameter estimates are given for several common estimation situations.     

Attitudes,risk perception and risk-taking behaviour among regular cyclists in Norway

The main aim of the study was to investigate whether attitudes toward traffic safety, risk perception, worry, risk tolerance, safety priority, and accident involvement are associated with cyclists’ risk-taking behaviour. Two types of cyclists’ risk-taking behaviour were studied: (1) ‘violation of traffic rules, and (2) ‘conflicts with other road users when cycling’. The study was based on a questionnaire survey carried out in 2017 among regular cyclists in Norway (n = 426). The results revealed that cyclists’ risk-taking behaviour was influenced by their attitudes, risk perception, and accident involvement. Pragmatic attitudes toward traffic rule violations and safety priority were found to be important predictors of the frequency of rule violations when cycling. Attitudes towards the enforcement of traffic rules for cyclists and dissatisfaction with the traffic rules for cyclists were found to be important predictors for the frequency of situations involving conflicts with other road users. Risk perception and accident involvement were found to be associated with conflicts with other road users, but not with rule violations when cycling. The findings show that risk perception and attitudes toward traffic safety are important for cyclists’ risk-taking behaviour in traffic. The road infrastructure and the traffic regulations are primarily planned for car drivers and pedestrians. If cyclists’ attitudes are to be changed, the cycling infrastructure and traffic rules for cyclists would need to be adjusted to cyclists as road users. When building new infrastructure and implementing new safety measures for cyclists, it is important to include attitude campaigns, as well as communications to the public about safety and the risks linked to cycling. Attitude campaigns could be used to strengthen the authorities’ communications that cyclists are prioritized as road users.     

The parameters in the near-miss-to-Weber's law

Many empirical data support the hypothesis that the sensitivity function grows as a power function of the stimulus intensity. This is usually referred to as the near-miss-to-Weber's law. The aim of the paper is to examine the near-miss-to-Weber's law in the context of psychometric models of discrimination. We study two types of psychometric functions, characterized by the representations P_a(x)=F(ρ(a)x^γ(a)) (type A), and P_a(x)=F(γ(a)+ρ(a)x) (type B). A central result shows that both types of psychometric functions are compatible with the near-miss-to-Weber's law. If a representation of type B exists, then the exponent in the near-miss is necessarily a constant function, that is, does not depend on the criterion value used to define “just noticeably different”. If, on the other hand, a representation of type A exists, then the exponent in the near-miss-to-Weber's law can vary with the criterion value. In that case, the parameters in the near-miss co-vary systematically.     

Characteristics of older cyclists (65+) and factors associated with self-reported cycling accidents in the Netherlands

Cycling supports the mobility, health and independency of the ageing population. However, older cyclists have an increased injury risk. On average, the risk of older people to sustain an injury in a cycling accident is three times higher per cycling kilometre than for middle-aged people and the injury risk increases with age. In comparison with middle-aged cyclists (<65 years), the risk of hospitalization is more than four times as high for older cyclists (≥65 years). The aim of this study was to reveal characteristics of older cyclists in general and to explore which of these characteristics are associated with self-reported cycling accidents from age 59. More than eight hundred older cyclists (>65 years) filled out a questionnaire, which included questions on demographics, bicycle specifications and personal characteristics. By means of a logistic regression, the relationship between personal factors and self-reported bicycle falls were studied. The univariate models showed that age, physical and mental impairments, bicycle model, living environment, feelings of uncertainty of the cyclist and changed cycling behaviour (such as more patience, lower speed) were related to falling off a bicycle. From the multivariate model we can conclude that several factors are associated with falling off a bicycle in the older population: (1) every year the cyclists becomes one year older (from the age of 65), the chance they have fallen increases with 7.3%, (2) If cyclists have mental impairments, the chance they have fallen increases with a factor 2.5, (3) if cyclists were less than completely confident the chance they have fallen increases with factor 1.8, (4) if cyclists live in a rural environment compared to an urban environment the chance they have fallen increases with a factor 2.1. In conclusion, demographic, cycling and personal factors can be related to increased self-reported fall risk. It is advised to take these factors into account when implementing new cycling related safety measures.     

Systematic covariation of the parameters in the near-miss to Weber's law, pointing to a new law

The exponent in the power function modeling of the near-miss to Weber's law is known to depend on several experimental factors, such as tone frequency and the presence or absence of noise. This paper presents data that confirm a theoretical argument that the near-miss exponent also depends on the definition of ‘just-noticeably different’ used empirically. Intensity discrimination data were collected for pure, 1000-Hz tones presented in quiet. Referent sound pressure levels ranged from 40 to 80 dB SPL in 10-dB steps. For each referent, the tone judged louder than the referent with probability equal to ν was determined, with ν ranging from 0.16 to 0.84. It was found that the power function exponent decreases monotonically with ν. Moreover, it was found that the two power law parameters co-vary systematically with ν, implying a submodel that has an interesting fixed-point property.     

‘The witness who saw, /he left little doubt’: a comparative consideration of expert testimony in mental disability law cases in common and civil law systems

The question of how courts assess expert evidence—especially when mental disability is an issue—raises the corollary question of whether courts adequately evaluate the content of the expert testimony or whether judicial decision making may be influenced by teleology (‘cherry picking’ evidence), pretextuality (accepting experts who distort evidence to achieve socially desirable aims), and/or sanism (allowing prejudicial and stereotyped evidence). Such threats occur despite professional standards in forensic psychology and other mental health disciplines that require ethical expert testimony. The result is expert testimony that, in many instances, is at best incompetent and at worst biased. The paper details threats to competent expert testimony in a comparative law context—in both the common law (involuntary civil commitment laws and risk assessment criminal laws) and, more briefly, civil law. We conclude that teleology, pretextuality, and sanism have an impact upon judicial decision making in both the common law and civil law. Finally, we speculate as to whether the new United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is likely to have any impact on practices in this area. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Investigating cycling kinematics and braking maneuvers in the real world: e-bikes make cyclists move faster,brake harder,and experience new conflicts

Pedelecs (e-bikes), which facilitate higher speeds with less effort in comparison to traditional bicycles (t-bikes), have grown considerably in popularity in recent years. Despite the large expansion of this new transportation mode, little is known about the behavior of e-cyclists, or whether cycling an e-bike increases crash risk and the likelihood of conflicts with other road users, compared to cycling on t-bikes. In order to support the design of safety measures and to maximize the benefits of e-bike use, it is critical to investigate the real-world behavior of riders as a result of switching from t-bikes to e-bikes.Naturalistic studies provide an unequaled method for investigating rider cycling behavior and bicycle kinematics in the real world in which the cyclist regularly experiences traffic conflicts and may need to perform avoidance maneuvers, such as hard braking, to avoid crashing. In this paper we investigate cycling kinematics and braking events from naturalistic data to determine the extent to which cyclist behavior changes as a result of transferring from t-bikes to e-bikes, and whether such change influences cycling safety.Data from the BikeSAFE and E-bikeSAFE naturalistic studies were used in this investigation to evaluate possible changes in the behavior of six cyclists riding t-bikes in the first study and e-bikes in the second one. Individual cyclists’ kinematics were compared between bicycle types. In addition, a total of 5092 braking events were automatically extracted after identification of dynamic triggers. The 286 harshest braking events (136 cases for t-bike and 150 for e-bike) were then validated and coded via video inspection.Results revealed that each of the cyclists rode faster on the e-bike than on the t-bike, increasing his/her average speed by 2.9–5.0 km/h. Riding an e-bike also increased the probability to unexpectedly have to brake hard (odds ratio = 1.72). In addition, the risk of confronting abrupt braking and sharp deceleration were higher when riding an e-bike than when riding a t-bike.Our findings provide evidence that cyclists’ behavior and the way cyclists interact with other road users change when cyclists switch from t-bikes to e-bikes. Because of the higher velocity, when on e-bikes, cyclists appear to have harder time predicting movements within the traffic environment and, as a result, they need to brake abruptly more often to avoid collisions, compared with cycling on t-bikes. This study provides new insights into the potential impact on safety that a cycling society moving to e-bikes may have, indicating that e-cycling requires more reactive maneuvers than does cycling traditional bicycles and suggesting that any distractive activity may be more critical when riding e-bikes compared to traditional bikes.     

法律的道德审视:当代中国卫生法伦理学研究的使命

卫生法伦理学是由医学、法学和伦理学三大学科相互交融、渗透而结合的产物。卫生法伦理学作为一门独立的学科有着独特的研究对象。法律的道德审视,不仅是法伦理学研究的基础途径,更是当代中国卫生法伦理学研究的使命。     

Interpreters in law enforcement contexts: Practices and experiences according to investigators

Interpreters play an important role in the criminal justice system, yet little is known about the way interpreters are used. This survey of U.S. law enforcement (N = 299) assessed practices and perceptions regarding interpreter use during interviews with nonnative English speakers. Investigators reported using colleagues more often than professional interpreters, using interpreters more often with suspects and in certain crimes (e.g., domestic violence), and that interpreters are usually at least partially informed about case facts prior to translating. Investigators responded to experimental vignettes, and results indicated they were more likely to seek and obtain interpreters when an interviewee has lived in the United States for fewer years; however, the language spoken and the interviewee's role (e.g., witness vs. suspect) did not affect decisions to request an interpreter. Several avenues for future experimental research are identified and discussed, including interpreting over the phone and interpreter susceptibility to biases.     

Neurocognitive impairment does not predict treatment outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder

There is conflicting evidence pertaining to whether or not neurocognitive task performance at baseline predicts treatment response in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). In the present study, we administered a set of executive neurocognitive tests with a putative sensitivity for treatment outcome to a sample of 138 OCD patients. Additionally, subjective neurocognitive dysfunction was determined via a questionnaire. All patients participated in a cognitive-behavioural treatment program (CBT). Results showed that responders (n = 73) did not differ from non-responders (n = 65) on any of the parameters except for decreased performance on the delayed alternation test (p < .1, effect size: .61). A subsidiary analysis revealed that slowing on the Trail-Making Test A and an enhanced rate of perserveration errors on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test predicted poor outcome for the treatment of compulsions. It is concluded that neurocognitive impairment does not represent a reliable early warning sign for non-response to CBT.     

Language proficiency does not modulate executive control in older bilinguals

ABSTRACT

We examined if language proficiency modulates performance in tasks that measure executive control in older Telugu-English bilinguals (n = 50, mean age = 57.15 years). We administered numerical Stroop task, Attention Network Task, Dimensional Change Card Sorting task, and stop-signal task that are known to tap into different aspects of executive functioning on healthy aging Telugu-English bilinguals. Second language (English) proficiency was calculated as a cumulative score that considered both subjective and objective measures of L2 fluency and use. Bilinguals were divided into two groups based on the cumulative score and compared on each task. We did not find any effect of language proficiency on any of the executive control measures. The additional Bayesian analysis also supported these findings. Therefore, the results do not support the claim that bilingual language proficiency modulates executive control, at least in the elderly population. We discuss the results with regard to the issue of bilingual advantage in executive control and the role of age and language use.     

Eye contact does not facilitate detection in children with autism

Eye contact is crucial in achieving social communication. Deviant patterns of eye contact behavior are found in individuals with autism, who suffer from severe social and communicative deficits. This study used a visual oddball paradigm to investigate whether children with high functioning autism have difficulty in detecting mutual gaze under experimental conditions. The results revealed that children with autism were no better at detecting direct gaze than at detecting averted gaze, which is unlike normal children. This suggests that whereas typically developing children have the ability to detect direct gaze, children with autism do not. This might result in altered eye-contact behavior, which hampers subsequent development of social and communicative skills.     

Resource depletion does not influence prospective memory in college students

This paper reports an experiment designed to investigate the potential influence of prior acts of self-control on subsequent prospective memory performance. College undergraduates (n = 146) performed either a cognitively depleting initial task (e.g., mostly incongruent Stroop task) or a less resource-consuming version of that task (e.g., all congruent Stroop task). Subsequently, participants completed a prospective memory task that required attentionally demanding monitoring processes. The results demonstrated that prior acts of self-control do not impair the ability to execute a future intention in college-aged adults. We conceptually replicated these results in three additional depletion and prospective memory experiments. This research extends a growing number of studies demonstrating the boundary conditions of the resource depletion effect in cognitive tasks.