Cross‐cultural similarities and differences in the theoretical predictors of cyberbullying perpetration: Results from a seven‐country study

The Barlett Gentile cyberbullying model (BGCM) posits that correlated anonymity perceptions and the belief in the irrelevance of muscularity for online bullying (BIMOB) predict positive cyberbullying attitudes to predict subsequent cyberbullying perpetration. Much research has shown the BGCM to be the only published theory that differentiates traditional and cyberbullying while validly predicting cyberbullying. So far, however, the cross‐cultural ubiquity has gone understudied. Thus, 1,592 adult participants across seven countries (USA, Australia, Brazil, China, Germany, Japan, and Singapore) completed measures germane to the BGCM. Supporting the BGCM, the variables were significantly correlated for the entire sample, participants from independent cultures, and participants from interdependent cultures. However, the relationship between BIMOB and positive cyberbullying attitudes as well as the relationship between positive cyberbullying attitudes and cyberbullying perpetration were stronger for independent cultures. These results suggest that the BGCM postulates are mostly universal, but several relations appear to be culturally different. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

Cyberbullying in High Schools: A Study of Students' Behaviors and Beliefs about This New Phenomenon

This study explores high school students' beliefs and behaviors associated with cyberbullying. Specifically, it examines this new phenomenon from the following four perspectives: (a) What happens after students are cyberbullied? (b) What do students do when witnessing cyberbullying? (c) Why do victims not report the incidents? and (d) What are students' opinions about cyberbullying? Data were collected from 269 Grade 7 through 12 students in 5 Canadian schools. Several themes have emerged from the analysis, which uncovers some important patterns. One finding is that over 40% would do nothing if they were cyberbullied, and only about 1 in 10 would inform adults. Students feel reluctant to report cyberbullying incidents to adults in schools for various reasons, which are discussed in depth.     

青少年网络受欺负与网络欺负的关系:一个有调节的中介模型

为探讨青少年网络受欺负对网络欺负影响的心理机制,本研究基于一般压力理论与情绪调节模型构建了一个有调节的中介模型,并采用网络欺负量表、社交焦虑量表以及情绪调节量表对武汉市某中学724名初中生进行测量,结果发现：（1）网络受欺负与社交焦虑、网络欺负显著正相关,社交焦虑与网络欺负显著正相关,认知重评与社交焦虑显著负相关,表达抑制与网络欺负显著正相关;（2）网络受欺负不仅直接预测网络欺负,还通过社交焦虑间接预测网络欺负;（3）网络受欺负对网络欺负的中介作用受到情绪调节策略的调节,对低认知重评的个体或高表达抑制的个体而言,中介作用更强。研究结果不仅解释了网络欺负是如何产生的,以及在什么条件下影响更大,也为减少网络欺负的发生提供了重要依据。     

Predicting recklessness in emerging adults: a test of a psychosocial model

Emerging adults--people aged 18-25 years--frequently behave recklessly. This study sheds light on the role of 4 psychosocial predictors of recklessness: (a) impulsivity, (b) peer pressure, (c) perceived risk, and (d) perceived benefits. The authors obtained self-report data from 208 emerging adults. All predictors were significantly correlated, in the expected directions, with 3 forms of reckless behavior: (a) reckless substance use, (b) reckless driving, and (c) reckless sexual behavior. Regression analyses revealed that, controlling for gender, relationship status, and social desirability, impulsivity predicted reckless substance use and sexual practices, peer pressure predicted reckless substance use, perceived risk predicted reckless driving, and perceived benefits predicted all three recklessness types. The authors' psychosocial model of emerging adult recklessness gained additional support from the finding that all 4 predictors explained unique variance in overall recklessness.     

Psychometric properties of the cyberbullying triangulation questionnaire: A prevalence analysis through seven roles

This study explores the psychometric properties of the Cyberbullying Triangulation Questionnaire (CTQ), which measures and triangulates the roles of cybervictimization, cyberaggression, and cyberbystanding. The study sample was composed of 5,036 Spanish students with a mean age of 14.19 years (SD = ±1.7; range = 10–23 years). Confirmatory factor analysis of the three correlated‐factor model yielded a high goodness of fit. Reliability as measured by Omega coefficients was adequate (>0.94). The measurement model was invariant for the two age groups (10–14 years and 15–23 years). Cybervictimization and cyberaggression correlated with offline victimization and aggression (r = 0.49; p < 0.001; r = 0.57; p < 0.001, respectively). The results show that the most prevalent cyberbystanding subrole was that of the Defender of the Victim (54.6%), and that cyberaggression and cyberbystanding were more prevalent among male adolescents (p < 0.001). The lack of parental control over children's use of the mobile phone was associated with cyberaggression (p < 0.001).     

Empathic Skills and Cyberbullying: Relationship of Different Measures of Empathy to Cyberbullying in Comparison to Offline Bullying Among Young Adults

ABSTRACT

Empathy, as the ability to understand and feel the emotions of others, is related to less bullying behavior. However, the link of bullying behavior with self-reports of empathy seems to be stronger than with behavioral measures of empathy (e.g., empathic accuracy). Few studies have analyzed the relationship of affective and cognitive empathy to cyberbullying behavior, especially among young adults. In a quasiexperimental dyadic interaction paradigm with 72 young adults, empathic accuracy was operationalized as the match of other- and self-reported emotions for the target, and emotional congruence as the match of the target's and the perceiver's self-reported emotions. Affective and cognitive empathy, offline bullying behavior, and cyberbullying behavior were measured using self-reports. Empathic accuracy and cognitive empathy were found to be negatively linked. Emotional congruence, self-reported affective and cognitive empathy did not correlate with offline bullying behavior or cyberbullying behavior. Only empathic accuracy was significantly negatively linked to offline bullying behavior. In group tests, higher empathic accuracy (but not emotional congruence) was connected to less offline bullying behavior. In a multiple regression analysis only emotional congruence was a predictor of cyberbullying behavior. Thus, while empathic accuracy might diminish offline bullying behavior, emotional congruence might diminish cyberbullying behavior.     

Appearance-related cyberbullying: A qualitative investigation of characteristics,content, reasons,and effects

The aim of this study was to explore 15-year-old adolescents’ experiences of appearance-related cyberbullying. Twenty-seven adolescents participated in four focus groups. The adolescents in this study perceived that it is common to be targeted in appearance-related cyberbullying, especially for girls, and that appearance-related cyberbullying is considered to be a potent strategy when attempting to hurt girls. Girls often received comments about being fat, while among boys, it was common to receive comments about looking or seeming “gay.” According to the adolescents, an important reason for engaging in appearance-related cyberbullying was to attain higher social status in the peer group. The girls and boys reacted differently to appearance-related cyberbullying. Boys tended to act out or take no offence, while girls experienced lower self-esteem and feelings of depression. Findings in this study contribute to research on cyberbullying as well as to research on girls’ body esteem development.     

青少年家庭功能、人际适应和网络欺凌的关系:一个有调节的中介作用

为探讨青少年家庭功能、人际适应和网络欺凌的关系以及性别在其中的调节作用,采用问卷法对北京和昆明共计1921名中学生进行研究。结果表明：（1）青少年群体中,男生的网络欺凌得分显著高于女生;（2）整体上,人际适应在家庭功能和网络欺凌关系间起完全中介作用;（3）性别在人际适应对青少年网络欺凌的影响中起显著调节作用,具体表现为：与男生相比,人际适应良好的女生实施网络欺凌的可能性更小。结果提示,良好的家庭功能可以通过影响人际适应进而影响青少年网络欺凌的实施,且在此过程中存在性别差异,对女生而言,着力提高社会人际适应能力更具针对性。     

Predictors and outcomes of cyberbullying among college students: A two wave study

Existing research on cyberbullying has primarily focused on adolescents in cross-sectional survey studies, with less research focusing on college students or employed adults over longer periods of time. To extend this literature, the current study examined new predictors and outcomes of cyberbullying perpetration (CP) and victimization (CV) among college students from two different universities that were followed across two time points. Risk factors were measured in line with previous theoretical models, including biological or personality-related variables (e.g., low self-control, dark-side personality traits, empathy) and environmental variables (e.g., perceived social support, lack of rule clarity, and internet use). Additionally, we examined several possible outcomes of CV and CP. Results from path analyses revealed that involvement with traditional bullying (either as a perpetrator or a victim) as well as Machiavellianism significantly predicted CV and CP. With regard to the cross-lagged associations between CV and CP, we found that Time 1 CV predicted time 2 CP, but Time 1 CP did not predict Time 2 CV. That is, being a victim of cyberbullying during the Fall semester predicted involvement as a perpetrator in the Spring semester. However, being a perpetrator during the Fall semester did not predict being a victim during the Spring semester. Regarding outcomes, we found that CV significantly predicted anxiety, depression, and helping behavior, and CP significantly predicted deviant behavior, but not GPA nor alcohol consumption. These findings have practical implications for college students as well as university student support services.     

同伴拒绝与网络欺负的关系:愤怒的中介作用和感知匿名性的调节作用

网络欺负是随着互联网和移动通讯工具快速发展而产生的一种新的欺负形式。本研究旨在探讨同伴拒绝和网络欺负的关系以及愤怒在其中的中介作用和感知匿名性在其中的调节作用。以武汉市703名初中生为研究对象,采用问卷法对其同伴拒绝、网络欺负、愤怒和感知匿名性进行调查。结果表明：（1）在控制性别、年龄和每天上网时间后,同伴拒绝能够显著正向预测网络欺负;（2）愤怒在同伴拒绝和网络欺负的关系中起中介作用;（3）同伴拒绝对网络欺负的直接作用和愤怒在二者关系中的中介作用均会受到感知匿名性的调节,相对于感知匿名性水平低的个体,直接效应和中介效应在感知匿名性水平高的个体中更强。研究结果支持同伴拒绝和网络欺负的关系是一个有调节的中介模型,这对于制定青少年网络欺负的干预和预防措施具有重要意义。     

同伴拒绝与网络欺负的关系:愤怒的中介作用和感知匿名性的调节作用

网络欺负是随着互联网和移动通讯工具快速发展而产生的一种新的欺负形式。本研究旨在探讨同伴拒绝和网络欺负的关系以及愤怒在其中的中介作用和感知匿名性在其中的调节作用。以武汉市703名初中生为研究对象,采用问卷法对其同伴拒绝、网络欺负、愤怒和感知匿名性进行调查。结果表明：（1）在控制性别、年龄和每天上网时间后,同伴拒绝能够显著正向预测网络欺负;（2）愤怒在同伴拒绝和网络欺负的关系中起中介作用;（3）同伴拒绝对网络欺负的直接作用和愤怒在二者关系中的中介作用均会受到感知匿名性的调节,相对于感知匿名性水平低的个体,直接效应和中介效应在感知匿名性水平高的个体中更强。研究结果支持同伴拒绝和网络欺负的关系是一个有调节的中介模型,这对于制定青少年网络欺负的干预和预防措施具有重要意义。     

青少年网络受欺负与网络欺负：攻击规范信念与自我控制双系统的作用

采用问卷调查法,以武汉市619名中学生为研究对象,探讨网络受欺负对网络欺负的影响及其作用机制。结果：①网络受欺负正向预测网络欺负;②攻击规范信念在网络受欺负对网络欺负的影响中起部分中介作用;③网络受欺负对网络欺负的直接效应受到自我控制双系统中控制系统的调节：网络受欺负对网络欺负的预测作用在控制力较低的青少年中更显著。研究揭示了网络受欺负与网络欺负的作用机制,有助于从自我控制角度进行的干预。     

When workplace bullying goes online: construction and validation of the Inventory of Cyberbullying Acts at Work (ICA-W)

There has been an increase in the use of Information Communication Technologies in the workplace. This change extends the scope of bullying behaviours at work to the online context. However, a generally accepted measure of workplace cyberbullying is still lacking. The purpose of the present paper is to construct and validate the Inventory of Cyberbullying Acts at Work, in order to contribute to this emerging field. Building on existing knowledge, we expected three types of cyberbullying behaviours to emerge in the work context: person related, work related and intrusive. First, the items of the scale were constructed and the three-dimensional structure of the scale was tested in two different samples. Then, the reliability and the convergent validity of the scale were assessed. Finally, we tested the predictive validity of the scale by assessing the impact of exposure to cyberbullying acts at work to individuals’ mental well-being six months later. Our analyses confirmed the three-dimensional structure of the scale. In addition, the scale was found reliable and valid. The construction of this scale offers an avenue for further research on cyberbullying in the work context.     

Peer and cyber aggression in secondary school students: the role of moral disengagement,hostile attribution bias,and outcome expectancies

This study investigated the relationship between cognitive mechanisms, applied by people to rationalize and justify harmful acts, and engagement in traditional peer and cyber aggression among school children. We examined the contribution of moral disengagement (MD), hostile attribution bias, and outcome expectancies, and we further explored the individual contribution of each MD mechanism. Our aim was to identify shared and unique cognitive factors of the two forms of aggression. Three hundred and thirty‐nine secondary school children completed self‐report measures that assessed MD, hostile attribution bias, outcome expectancies, and their roles and involvement in traditional and cyber aggression. We found that the MD total score positively related to both forms of peer‐directed aggression. Furthermore, traditional peer aggression positively related to children's moral justification, euphemistic language, displacement of responsibility and outcome expectancies, and negatively associated with hostile attribution bias. Moral justification also related positively to cyber aggression. Cyber aggression and cyber victimization were associated with high levels of traditional peer aggression and victimization, respectively. The results suggest that MD is a common feature of both traditional and cyber peer aggression, but it seems that traditional forms of aggression demand a higher level of rationalization or justification. Moreover, the data suggest that the expectation of positive outcomes from harmful behavior facilitates engagement in traditional peer aggression. The differential contribution of specific cognitive mechanisms indicates the need for future research to elaborate on the current findings, in order to advance theory and inform existing and future school interventions tackling aggression and bullying. Aggr. Behav. 36:81–94, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.