Computational Evidence That Frequency Trajectory Theory Does Not Oppose But Emerges From Age‐of‐Acquisition Theory

According to the age‐of‐acquisition hypothesis, words acquired early in life are processed faster and more accurately than words acquired later. Connectionist models have begun to explore the influence of the age/order of acquisition of items (and also their frequency of encounter). This study attempts to reconcile two different methodological and theoretical approaches (proposed by Lambon Ralph & Ehsan, 2006 and Zevin & Seidenberg, 2002 ) to age‐limited learning effects. The current simulations extend the findings reported by Zevin and Seidenberg (2002) that have shown that frequency trajectories (FTs) have limited and specific effects on word‐reading tasks. Using the methodological framework proposed by Lambon Ralph and Ehsan (2006) , which makes it possible to compare word‐reading and picture‐naming tasks in connectionist networks, we were able to show that FT has a considerable influence on age‐limited learning effects in a picture naming task. The findings show that when the input–output mappings are arbitrary (simulating picture naming tasks), the links formed by the network become entrenched as a result of early experience and that subsequent variations in frequency of exposure of the items have only a minor impact. In contrast, when the mappings between input‐output are quasi‐systematic or systematic (simulating word‐reading tasks), the training of new items was generalized and resulted in the suppression of age‐limited learning effects. At a theoretical level, we suggest that FT, which simultaneously takes account of time and the level of exposure across time, represents a more precise and modulated measure compared with the order of introduction of the items and may lead to innovative hypotheses in the field of age‐limited learning effects.     

Indexicals and Reference‐Shifting: Towards a Pragmatic Approach

I propose a pragmatic approach to the kind of reference‐shifting occurring in indexicals as used in e.g. written notes and answering machine messages. I proceed in two steps. First, I prepare the ground by showing that the arguments against such a pragmatic approach raised in the recent literature fail. Second, I take a first few steps towards implementing this approach, by sketching a pragmatic theory of reference‐shifting, and showing how it can handle cases of the relevant kind. While the immediate scope of the paper is restricted to indexicals and reference‐shifting, and the discussion is confined to a specific range of theories and cases, the approach proposed is compatible with a fairly broad range of more or less semantically conservative theories, and many of the conclusions drawn are significant for the evaluation of pragmatic explanations in philosophy more generally. The overall goal is to offer a new perspective on the issues under discussion, and to prompt philosophers to reconsider some of the established methods by which pragmatic explanations are evaluated.     

Keeping it Real: Intentional Inexistents,Fineness‐of‐Grain,and the Dilemma for Extrinsic Higher‐Order Representational Theories

According to the standard argument from targetless higher‐order representations, the possibility of such representations presents a dilemma for higher‐order theorists. In this article I argue that there are two theoretically well‐motivated replies to the standard argument. Consequently, the standard argument against higher‐order theories fails. I then go on to argue that while certain versions of higher‐order theory can adequately respond to the standard argument, they both, nevertheless, fail to explain the fineness‐of‐grain that phenomenally conscious experience appears to have.     

Children''s Representational Theory of Language:The Problem of Opaque Contexts

Around four years of age, children recognize that action is less a consequence of the way the world is than the way it is represented by the actor. This understanding is characterized as a “theory of mind.” This study examines the possibility of the development of a parallel theory of language; specifically, the understanding that, in opaque contexts, terms do not simply map on to the referent of the expression, but rather indicate how that object is to be represented. 120 3- to 7-year-olds were tested on their theory of mind (using false belief tasks) and sensitivity to opaque contexts. Children who passed false belief tasks performed more successfully on the opacity measure than those who did not, even when age was partialled out (r (117) = .2453, p < .01). It is concluded that children come to realize that language does not refer to the world directly, but rather via one's representation of it. The results are consistent with the view that both abilities are manifestations of a more general understanding of representation, and that children's theories of mind and language follow similar developmental paths.     

Not as a Means: Killing as a Side Effect in Self‐defense

A person drives her well‐maintained car cautiously and alertly to the movies. Freak circumstances send the car out of control. It veers in the direction of a pedestrian whom it will kill unless she, or a third party, blows it up with a grenade. Whether the driver is liable to be thusly killed polarizes debates about the ethics of self‐defense. But debaters frequently conflate the questions of whether and by what means the driver is liable to be killed. The paper separates these questions: it argues the driver's liability to lethal harm need not entail her liability to the grenade.     

Free Process Theory: Towards a Typology of Occurrings

The paper presents some essential heuristic and constructional elements of Free Process Theory (FPT), a non-Whiteheadian, monocategoreal framework. I begin with an analysis of our common sense concept of activities, which plays a crucial heuristic role in the development of the notion of a free process. I argue that an activity is not a type but a mode of occurrence, defined in terms of a network of inferences. The inferential space characterizing our concept of an activity entails that anything which is conceived of as occurring in the activity mode is a concrete,dynamic, non-particular individual. Such individuals, which I call ‘free processes’, may be used for the interpretation of much more than just common sense activities. I introduce the formal theory FPT, a mereology with anon-transitive part-relation, which contains a typology of processes based on the following five parameters relating to: (a) patterns of possible spatial and temporal recurrence (automerity); (b) kinds of components (participant structure); (c) kinds of dynamic composition; (d) kinds of dynamic flow (dynamic shape); and (e) dynamic context. I show how these five evaluative dimensions for free processes can be used to define ontological correlates for various common sense categories,and to draw distinctions between various forms of agency(distributed, collective, reciprocal, entangled) and emergence (weak, strong,as ‘autonomous system’ (Bickhard/Christensen)).     

Towards a Theory of Social Dynamics

(Résumé) Vers Une Théorie de la Dynamique Sociale

On considère la théorie pratique (“field theory”) basée sur la philosophie organismique de la biologie, la méthode hypothétique-déductive, et le langage des constructs comme l'approche la plus juste à une psychologie sociale scientifique. L'auteur examine diverses théories de la psychologie sociale et ne trouve aucunes qui satisfassent les critères qu'il a établis pour une approche théorique-pratique. Il définit ensuite le champ social et discute les variantes dynamiques topologiques et non-mesurées dans sa structure. Les concepts de région, fluidité, limite, barrière, caractère de membre (“membership character”), et direction de tension premièrement employés par K. Lewin pour la psychologie individuelle sont appliqués aux problèmes sociologiques et sociaux-psychologiques. Le problème d'une “foule” qui devient une “multitude désordonnée” est sujeté à une analyse théorique-pratique. On conclut que la méthode serait également applicable à d'autres problèmes sociaux-psychologiques et que les groupes sociaux peuvent ětre traités selon la méthode théorique-pratique. On suggère que cette approche pourrait fournir une psychologie sociale de valeur scientifique.

Brown

(Referat) NACH EINER THEORIE DER SOZIALEN DYNAMIK HIN

Eine Feldtheorie, die auf die organismische Philosophie der Biologie, die hypothetisch-deduktive Methode, und auf die Sprache der Konstrukte gegründet ist, wird als die gültigste Annährung an die wissenschaftlich-soziale Psychologie betractet. Der Autor untersuch die verschiedenen Theorien der sozialen Psychologie und findet keine, welche die Kriterien erfüllt, die er zur feldtheoretischen Annährung aufgestellt hat. Er definiert dann das soziale Feld und bespricht die topologischen und nichtmetrischen dynamischen Varianten in seinem Aufbau. Die Begriffe von Gebiet, Flüssigkeit, Grenze, Barriere, Zugehörigkeit, und Spannung, die zuerst von K. Lewin für individuelle Psychologie gebraucht waren, werden auf soziologische und sozial-psychologische Probleme angewandt. Das Problem des Uebergangs von einer Menge Leute zu einem “Mob” wird einer feldtheoretischen Untersuchung unterworfen. Es wird gefolgert, dass die Methode sich ebensogut auf andere Probleme anwenden lässt und dass soziale Gruppen feldtheoretisch behandelt werden dürften. Es wird vorgeschlagen, dass eine solche Annährung eine wissenschaftlich gülitige soziale Psychologie verschaffen könnte.

Brown     

Towards effective partnerships in a collaborative problem‐solving task

Background Collaborative learning is recognized as an effective learning tool in the classroom. In order to optimize the collaborative learning experience for children within a collaborative partnership, it is important to understand how to match the children by ability level, and whether assigning roles within these dyads is beneficial or not. Aims The current study investigated the effect of partnering children with different task‐specific abilities and assigning or not assigning helping roles within the dyads on the quality of talk used in a collaborative learning task. Sample The participants in this study comprised 54 year 6 pupils from a Western Sydney government primary school (boys=26, girls=28). The ages ranged from 10 years 10 months to 12 years 4 months with a mean age of 11 years 4 months. Method The children were formed into 27 single sex dyads of low–middle‐ and low–high‐ability partnerships. In half of each of these dyads the higher ability partner was asked to help the lower ability partner, which was compared with just asking partners to work together. The quality of talk used by the dyads while working collaboratively on the problem‐solving task was analysed using a language analysis framework developed by Mercer and colleagues (e.g. Littleton et al., 2005 ; Mercer, 1994, 1996 ). Results Results of this study found that children who worked collaboratively in the low–middle‐ability dyad condition demonstrated significantly more high‐quality exploratory talk than those in the low–high‐ability dyad condition. Although there was no significant difference between dyads who were assigned roles and those who were asked to work together, there was an interaction trend which suggests that low–high‐ability dyads, who were given the roles of helper and learner, showed more exploratory talk than dyads who were asked just to work together. Conclusion Mercer's re‐conceptualization of Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in terms of the Intermental Development Zone (IDZ), which is reliant on constructive challenging discourse, can potentially provide a platform upon which all learners in the classroom can benefit from collaborative learning experiences.     

A Meaningful Justification for the Representational Theory of Measurement

Measurement, the means by which numbers enter science, is of fundamental importance to modern science. The relationship between its qualitative and quantitative aspects has generated many theories and much controversy. In 19th century geometry similar developments led mathematician Felix Klein to devise a theory for unifying qualitative and quantitative approaches to geometry. Klein's theory, which today is called the Erlanger program, was based on transformation groups. In this article, the Erlanger program is given a new foundation based on mathematical logic and is extended to science. The current dominant theory of measurement in the literature, the representational theory, is then justified in terms of the new foundation for the Erlanger program. Certain inferential techniques used in dimensional analysis and the related technique of possible psychophysical laws are also given justifications in terms of the new foundation.     

Towards a Non‐Essentialist Pedagogy of “Islam”

Abstract. Traversing a rock‐strewn terrain of essentialist methodologies historically employed for teaching Islam, the author espouses a non‐Essentialist pedagogy that combines critical reflection, analysis of historical methods, and development of an appreciation for alternative notions about Islam and global interdependence. In this essay the author contends that teaching Islam ought to avoid our and their language and instead aim at helping students think in critically reflective, creative, and relational ways so that they might learn to “think of civilizations as transformative, reflexive, and fluid entities.”     

Towards a Theory of Toys and Toy-Play

The distinction between toys and games is built into grammar itself: one plays games but plays with toys. Although some thinkers have recognized the importance of the distinction, their insights are often contradictory and vague, and the word toy is used unsystematically to refer to a wide range of objects and associated play-activities. To remedy this problem a phenomenological approach to play could be helpful, but those that exist rarely discuss the difference between forms of play, instead using playfulness as ambiguous shorthand for freedom from rules. Beginning with Charles Baudelaire’s 1853 essay, “The Philosophy of Toys,” the author surveys and synthesizes various theories of toys to produce a detailed account of those objects that conduce to toy-play, focusing on insignificance as the defining phenomenological quality of toys. He then uses speech act theory to offer a definition of a toy—an invitation to play with its identity—and explores how the existence of such an invitation depends not only on the intrinsic qualities of the object of play, but also its context and the identity of the player.