亲子互动中游戏参与方式、情感交流和儿童心理理论的关系

本研究通过亲子互动游戏观察来考查亲子游戏参与方式、情感交流与儿童心理理论发展的关系。实验结果如下:第一,控制了年龄因素后,儿童的亲子游戏参与方式中的主动参与和建议游戏两种方式与儿童心理理论发展之间存在显著的相关;而对于母亲来说,指导游戏的参与方式和儿童心理理论发展存在显著相关。第二,控制了年龄因素之后,儿童情感交流方面的分享积极情感和心理理论发展之间存在显著相关。而母亲这方面的指标和儿童心理理论发展没有显著相关。文章对上述结果进行了分析讨论。     

The paradox of power sharing: Participative charismatic leaders have subordinates with more instead of less need for leadership

Although charismatic and participative leaders have been noted for their positive effects on criteria such as performance, job satisfaction, and commitment, few studies have looked at the relations with subordinates' leadership needs. In this study, the relations between charismatic and participative leadership, team outcomes, and a team's need for leadership were investigated. The sample consisted of South Pacific CEOs and their top-level management teams from Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands. Results showed that charismatic leadership was related to both group-level need for leadership and positive team outcomes. However, team outcomes did not mediate the relations between leadership and a team's need for leadership. Additionally, a moderator effect was found between participative leadership and charismatic leadership in explaining a team's need for leadership, implying that teams of subordinates with participative charismatic leaders need more instead of less leadership from their CEOs.     

A PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT APPROACH FOR IMPROVING DIRECT-CARE STAFF PERFORMANCE IN AN INSTITUTIONAL SETTING

The present study evaluated a participative management approach for increasing the frequency of interactions between institutional staff and severely/profoundly retarded residents. The participative management approach involved teaching staff how to use self-monitoring, standard setting, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement procedures. These procedures were then used by staff with minimal involvement of supervisory personnel. Although supervisors provided feedback and praise to staff for using these self-management behaviors, feedback and praise were never dispensed contingent on staff interactions with residents. Results indicated that during the participative management program there was an increase in staff interactions that were contingent on appropriate resident behavior. The increase in this type of staff interaction was accompanied by an increase in appropriate resident behavior. Follow-up data on both staff and resident behaviors, although showing moderating trends, suggested generally good maintenance of the initial behavior changes. Acceptability data suggested that staff were quite receptive to the program. The advantages of participative management procedures for improving staff performance in residential settings are discussed.     

Stress,Burnout, and the Special Services Provider

Burnout is a particular response to stress involving psychological withdrawal. It is a costly coping mechanism that can adversely affect the motivation, performance, and personal wellbeing of special service providers. The burnout response develops when more direct and active problem-solving efforts are perceived as useless. Research on the causes of burnout suggests that factors in the work environment are relatively more important than characteristics of individuals. Lack of clarity, control, support, and feedback, as well as work overload, are particularly significant sources of burnout in special education. Various strategies for preventing burnout have been developed, and some have been evaluated to a limited extent. They include individual strategies such as exercise, progressive relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and social problem-solving skills training. Group strategies such as social support groups and resource exchange networks, and organizational strategies such as participative decision-making structures, quality circles, and survey feedback for supervisors, also represent promising options.     

THE EFFECTS OF SELF-SET, PARTICIPATIVELY SET AND ASSIGNED GOALS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES

A government agency wished to define effective supervisory behavior. Fifty-seven government employees participated in the job analysis. The employees were randomly assigned to one of three goal setting conditions, namely, self-set, participatively set, and assigned goals. The task required each individual to brainstorm individually job behaviors that he or she had seen make the difference between effective and ineffective job behavior as a supervisor. Goals were set in terms of the number of behaviors to be listed within 20 minutes. There was no significant difference in goal difficulty between those with participatively set goals and those with self-set goals. Goal difficulty was held constant between the participative and assigned goal conditions by imposing a goal agreed upon by an employee in the participative condition upon an employee in the assigned condition. There was no significant difference among the three goal setting conditions regarding goal acceptance or actual performance. This was true regardless of employee age, education, position level, years as a supervisor, or time employed in the public sector. The correlation between goal difficulty and performance was .62, .69, and .74, respectively, in the participative, self-set, and assigned goal conditions.     

参与型领导对员工幸福感的双重影响：感知同事支持的调节作用

本研究探究了参与型领导对员工工作幸福感的双重影响,并探究了感知同事支持的调节作用。基于191份互联网企业员工的三阶段追踪数据,采用路径分析发现：参与型领导既能增强员工的组织自尊进而提升员工工作幸福感,又会加重员工的工作负荷进而降低员工工作幸福感。感知同事支持在上述两条路径过程中发挥调节作用,当员工感知到高水平同事支持时,工作负荷的中介效应被削弱,而组织自尊的中介效应被强化。上述结果能启发管理者如何有效地为企业员工谋幸福。     

Conflict management styles and work-related well-being among higher education employees

The objective of the study was to assess the relationship between conflict management styles and work-related well-being of employees in a higher education institution in South Africa. Participants were academic personnel (n = 180) and support staff (n = 201), of which 59.9% were females and 29.9% were black African participants of a large South African university. They completed self-report measures of conflict management and work-related well-being. The data were analysed to predict work-related well-being from conflict management styles and to determine the differences between support staff and academic personnel regarding conflict management styles and work-related well-being. Findings indicated the conflict management style of compromise to predict lower levels of engagement and higher levels of disengagement. Support staff reported to utilise the compromising and dominating style more than did academic personnel. Diversity in conflict management styles may serve organisations better than a monolithic conflict management style.     

Taking the reins: the effects of new leader status and leadership style on team performance

New leaders face a challenging task when they take charge of their teams. They have to determine how best to guide the work process, and they must understand how their behaviors will affect the members of their team. This research examines how a newly assigned team leader's status moderates subordinates' reactions to different leadership styles to affect assessments of the leader's self-confidence and effectiveness, and how this impacts team performance. Across 2 experimental studies, results demonstrate that low-status leaders are rated as more effective when they use a directive style, whereas high-status leaders are viewed as more effective when they use a participative style, and this relationship is mediated by perceptions of self-confidence. In addition, teams whose leaders are viewed more favorably perform better on a complex group task. These findings imply that low-status individuals are able to enhance their level of personal power by drawing on whatever positional power they hold, whereas high-status individuals are better off relying solely on their personal power to influence others. This research also provides a clear demonstration that assessments of new leaders' behaviors are subject to an appraisal that is clouded by observers' status perceptions and attributions.     

What good leaders actually do: micro-level leadership behaviour,leader evaluations,and team decision quality

We supplement broad definitions of leadership behaviour with the concept of micro-level leadership behaviour, leaders’ verbal and non-verbal visible conduct and interaction. For the context of team decision-making, we identify two potentially beneficial micro-level leadership behaviours, question asking and behavioural mimicry. Specifically, we propose that under conditions of informational complexity and unshared information, participative leadership is most appropriate for team decision-making, that its effects are mediated by inquiring and empathy, and that question asking and mimicry are the behavioural micro-level manifestations of inquiring and empathy. We thus hypothesize that the effect of participative leadership on team decision quality and leader evaluation is mediated by question asking and mimicry. We conduct a laboratory experiment with student teams working on a hidden profile decision-making task and measure question asking through behavioural coding and mimicry with motion sensors. Results show that the effect of participative leadership on decision quality is mediated by question asking, and that the effect of participative leadership on leader evaluation as transformational is mediated by leaders’ behavioural mimicry and question asking. Under control of these micro-level behaviours, team decision quality and leader evaluations were unrelated.     

The Motivating Role of Perceived Right Violation and Efficacy Beliefs in Identification with the Italian Water Movement

Because individuals' fundamental right to water is often taken for granted, little is known about why individuals participate in water activism. We examine how individuals identify with and intend to participate in the Italian Water Movement to defend the “public management” of water supply. Building on the collective‐action literature, we test an explanatory model in which the perceived violation of the right to water and group and participative‐efficacy beliefs increase movement identification, which predicts subsequent activism. Study 1 (N = 153 activists) largely confirmed our hypotheses: right violation and participative efficacy uniquely influenced movement identification, which in turn predicted activism. Study 2 corroborated these findings by employing a broader sample of 132 Italian citizens, with right violation, participative and group‐efficacy beliefs predicting movement identification, which in turn predicted activism. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.     

“We've Got Creative Differences”: The Effects of Task Conflict and Participative Safety on Team Creative Performance

Although both participative safety and team task conflict are widely thought to be related to team creative performance, the nature of this relationship is still not well understood, and prior studies have frequently yielded conflicting results. This study examines the ambiguity in the extant literature and proposes that both constructs must exist in tandem. Through a study of 55 design teams, we have identified a significant interaction between task conflict and participative safety. Results suggest that both participative safety and task conflict must exist in tandem to spur team creativity, and that team creative performance must be examined at the facet level, instead of simply as a single construct. In addition, supplemental analyses suggest that teams low on participative safety and task conflict are likely able to generate more original solutions for creative tasks due to the presence of an independent, disagreeable creative member. Implications for future research and practice are further discussed.     

An experimental comparison of two AIDS prevention interventions among young Zimbabweans.

In 1990, psychologists compared data on 42 student teachers at the University of Zimbabwe who underwent an information-based health education session designed to increase condom use with data on 42 other student teachers who underwent a skills-based health education session. They wanted to determine whether skills-based, participative interventions are more effective in changing attitudes toward AIDS and practices than are information interventions. Mean age for all student teachers was 23.1 years. All participants completed a questionnaire before the interventions and the same questionnaire 4 months after the interventions. The 1-hour information-based intervention included a talk about HIV transmission and prevention and a question and answer period after the talk. A condom fitting demonstration, individual practice, group formulation of behavioral self-management approaches, sketches of social and assertiveness skills used to negotiate condom use, pair role plays, group psychodrama about effects of AIDS, and a video about a popular African musician with AIDS comprised the 90-minute skills-based, participative intervention. The skills-based group exhibited more knowledge about condoms and their correct use (p.001), higher self-efficacy (p.05), fewer obstacles to condom use (p,05), and fewer acts of intercourse without condom use in the last 30 days (p.05) than the information-based group. These results were especially encouraging because risk reduction behaviors were maintained over 4 months. Thus more skills-based interventions and skilled AIDS educators are needed in Africa. The few psychologists in Africa can train educators, design training programs and manuals, and develop effective support and supervision systems.     

Gender,leadership style,and subordinate satisfaction: An experiment

As women continue to enter and advance within management ranks, how gender and leadership style influence subordinate satisfaction remains a significant issue. This paper reports on an experiment that analyzed the effects of gender and leadership style on subordinate satisfaction. While subjects were more satisfied in democratically led groups, gender of leader did not significantly affect satisfaction. Female subordinates were more dissatisfied than males in autocratically led groups.     

Effect of a participative work conference on psychosocial work environment and well-being

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a participative work conference based on democratic dialogue on the employee's psychosocial work environment (job control, work climate, clarity of work goals, flow of information, and support from supervisor) and well-being (emotional exhaustion and stress symptoms). The study group was male-dominated (80%) and was mostly employed in manual tasks (86%) in a municipal public works department. Pre- and postmeasurements were carried out through a questionnaire with a 2-year interval. In addition, the experiences of participating in the intervention and the perceived changes due to the intervention were examined through thematic group interviews. The intervention group (n = 253 from Department A) participated in two-and-a-half-day participative work conferences. Two control groups were applied: (1) n = 107 from Department A; (2) n = 165 from Department B. The intervention had a positive effect on the work climate and flow of information in the intervention group compared with Control group 2 after controlling for age, gender, type of work, basic education, and participation in other interventions. The intervention did not, however, have an effect on individual well-being. According to the interviews, the work climate became more open and participative regardless of some negative experiences in participating in the conferences.     

Father-infant interaction, paternal ideas about early child care, and their consequences for the development of children's self-recognition

In this longitudinal study, the authors addressed intracultural variation on fathers' interactions with their 3-month-old infants, their ideas about parental care, and the timing of their children's self-recognition at the age of 18-20 months. Participants were 24 middle-class German fathers and their firstborn children. Two behavioral clusters emerged: a more proximal parenting style with extensive body contact and a more distal parenting style with extensive object stimulation. Fathers in the distal cluster had significantly more education than did fathers in the proximal cluster. Children who had experienced more distal parenting were more likely to recognize themselves in a mirror than were children with more proximal parenting. The authors discuss the results with respect to fathers' influence on child development and patterns of intracultural variation.     

Using goal setting, task clarification, and feedback to increase the use of the hands-free technique by hospital operating room staff

We evaluated the effects of a behavioral treatment on the safe passing of sharp instruments using the hands-free technique among hospital operating room personnel during surgical procedures. Treatment consisted of participative goal setting, task clarification, and feedback. The average percentage of sharp instruments passed safely increased from 32% to 64% and 31% to 70% between baseline and treatment phases in the inpatient and outpatient surgery units, respectively. Five-month follow-up data suggested maintenance of treatment effects. These findings suggest the utility of organizational behavior management strategies in reducing risky behavior in hospital settings.     

Effects of participative vs assigned goals and feedback in a multitrial task

A dynamic multitrial perspective on goal setting was adopted in order to investigate the effects of both goals (assigned vs participative) and goal-discrepant performance feedback on subsequent goal commitment and performance. Eighty subjects were initially assigned to either an assigned or participative goal condition, and performed a multitrial task with all subjects receiving goal discrepant performance feedback following the first task trial. Assigned rather than participative goal setting led to higher goal commitment, and large goal/feedback discrepancies led to greater reductions in subsequent goals. Because of these goal changes, the ability of initial goals to predict performance decreased over trials. However, when goal commitment, which reflects revised goals, was also considered, the ability to predict performance actually increased over trials. A moderating effect for need achievement was obtained such that higher-need achievers were more goal committed and performed better under participative goal setting than low-need achievers. Discussion focused on the practical and theoretical importance of a dynamic goal-setting perspective in explaining and predicting responses to goals and feedback systems.     

Theological Education in Epistemological Perspective: The Significance of Michael Polanyhi's “Personal Knowledge” for a Theological Orientation of Theological Education

Of what significance to theological education is critical reflection? Representing an influential perspective, Charles Wood seems to ascribe to critical reflection the highest priority by defining theology as “critical reflection upon the validity of the Christian witness.” This article argues that such a perspective devalues participatory modes of knowing. In contrast, the scientific epistemology of Michael Polanyi better illumines the pedagogical nature and theological orientation of theological education. Specifically, his notion of “indwelling” serves as a point of integration by which participative knowing is extended and intensified by the clarificatory power of critical reflection.     

Assessment of coping strategies, social support, and general health status in individuals with diabetes mellitus

This study examined 51 individuals (30 men, 21 women) who participated in an outpatient diabetes education program. Participants with higher perceived support by friends and problem-solving coping strategies were healthier, while those exhibiting a wish-fulfillment coping style were less healthy. Perceived family social support was much greater for Type II (noninsulin-dependent) individuals than for Type I (insulin-dependent) individuals. Men perceived greater family support, were more likely to use problem-solving coping, and were healthier than women; however, both wish fulfillment and detachment coping were more prevalent in women. Perceived support from family and friends increased with education. Implications for diabetes education programs are also introduced.     

COMMUNICATION AND PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

Traditional models of participative decision making neglect the role subordinates play in establishing a participative environment. In this study, participative decision making is viewed as a social phenomenon defined through interaction between superiors and subordinates. Data obtained from 264 employees of a large social service organization were used to test hypotheses predicting positive associations between participation and superior-subordinate communication behavior. The results provide support for the contention that, for subordinates, participation in decision making is associated strongly with the quantity and quality of communication they experience with their superior. Considering the impact of superior-subordinate communication in the establishment of participative decision making may aid in understanding what preconditions are necessary before such arrangements can become successful.