证候存在的逻辑回答

2003年我国开始了农村合作医疗的重建工作,它直接关系到中国几亿农民的健康和利益,目前仍处于大规模的试点阶段。通过对部分试点地区的实地调查研究和文献资料分析,以及新型农村合作医疗在其具体的实施过程中存在问题的探讨,对进一步发展提出了相关的政策建议,希望能对这项制度稳健和可持续的发展有所裨益。     

证候实质研究中弱特异性的正面观

证候实质研究中弱特异性的正面观中国中医研究院（北京１００７００）陈小野一、证侯实质研究的弱特异性特点及其反面观证候实质研究是中医理论现代化研究的主要领域,近年来,这一工作有停滞趋势,其原因就在于证候实质研究中存在着特异性弱这一难以逾越的“障碍”。特异...     

必要的软化——证候实质研究的再思考

必要的软化──证候实质研究的再思考中国中医研究院基础所（北京１００７００）佟彤代表中医学特色的证候,多年来一直是中医研究现代化的突破口。但在证候的规范化研究过程中发现,由于证候的硕大内涵所具有的不确定性,使得任何一个或一组现代医学指标都很难具有特异性...     

关于证候定义的三点商榷

对证候定义研究中存在的问题进行剖析,提出三点商榷意见.首先,"证"是病理学概念,不是诊断学概念.其次,"证"发生在病人身上,并非由诊断"概括"出来.第三,应当把内在的病理改变与外在疾病征象区别开来.     

证候的文化发生学探讨

任何事物都有一个发生学过程 ,中医证候认识也不例外。中医之所以形成了疾病证候认识成果 ,必然有其形成的原因 ,证候的认识既然是历史形成的 ,其原因、本质及规律也必然能够从历史的文化中揭示出来。1　本体论的限制关于世界的本原问题 ,东西方有着不同的认识方式。中国古代的哲学家认为 :世界的万事万物都是由一气化生的 ,气是世界的本原 ,气是构成天地万物的始基物质 ,气充塞宇宙 ,流动有序 ,连续不断 ,变化无穷。早在公元前 3～ 4世纪的周庄在《庄子》一书中说到“通天下一气耳” ,“气变而有形 ,形变而有生”(《庄子·知北游》)。“天…     

证候本质研究的思路与方法

证候是中医学特有的概念 ,既是理论体系的核心内容 ,也是临证的重要依据。中医的理、法、方、药都是围绕证候来展开的 ,法随证立 ,方从法出。无论是理论工作者还是临床医生 ,对证候都非常关注。中医对疾病的认识方式与西医完全不同 ,它是通过对疾病表现出来的纷繁复杂现象的分析 ,然后进行辨证治疗。由于辨证个体之间差异甚大 ,长期以来人们一直试图寻找证候的客观本质。研究者们希望通过对证候的微观定量研究 ,为中医的准确辨证提供新的方法和科学依据。这种研究曾给人们带来过鼓舞和希望 ,但随着研究的深入 ,原来的结论一一被否定 ,研究者…     

试论动物遗传特性在证候动物模型研究中的作用

与西医动物模型比较，中医的证候动物模型研究显得落后、粗放、重复率低、零碎不成体系。特别是在解决实际问题上，中医证候动物模型难以实用。表现在一方面大多数中医证候动物模型自认为造模成功，而对中药新药药理研究发挥不了应有效益，许多在辨病基础上辨证的中医新药...     

基因组学对中医证候现代化的影响

1　中医证候现代化的研究现状及存在问题几十年来 ,国内外众多中医、中西医结合研究学者们把中医证候现代化的研究作为中医研究的重要方向 ,力图通过该项研究揭示中医学的奥秘 ,使中医证和辨证施治更加科学化、客观化。他们运用多种现代技术和方法 ,如生化学 (酶学 )、细胞生物学、免疫学、功能形态学、微循环、血液流变学、微量元素以及分子生物学等 ,对中医证候的研究做了大量的工作 ,初步证实中医证候具有现代病理生理学基础 ,并部分地阐释了其中医理论的某些细节及其科学性 ,对中医证进行了各种客观指标的研究 ,取得了一定的成果。如沈…     

Multivalued Logic to Transform Potential into Actual Objects

We define the notion of “potential existence” by starting from the fact that in multi-valued logic the existential quantifier is interpreted by the least upper bound operator. Besides, we try to define in a general way how to pass from potential into actual existence. Presented by Melvin Fitting     

Rectifying the Mischaracterization of Logic by Mental Model Theorists

Khemlani et al. (2018) mischaracterize logic in the course of seeking to show that mental model theory (MMT) can accommodate a form of inference (, let us label it) they find in a high percentage of their subjects. We reveal their mischaracterization and, in so doing, lay a landscape for future modeling by cognitive scientists who may wonder whether human reasoning is consistent with, or perhaps even capturable by, reasoning in a logic or family thereof. Along the way, we note that the properties touted by Khemlani et al. as innovative aspects of MMT-based modeling (e.g., nonmonotonicity) have for decades been, in logic, acknowledged and rigorously specified by families of (implemented) logics. Khemlani et al. (2018) further declare that is “invalid in any modal logic.” We demonstrate this to be false by our introduction (Appendix A) of a new propositional modal logic (within a family of such logics) in which is provably valid, and by the implementation of this logic. A second appendix, B, partially answers the two-part question, “What is a formal logic, and what is it for one to capture empirical phenomena?”     

The Relation between Formal and Informal Logic

The issue of the relationship between formal and informal logic depends strongly on how one understands these two designations. While there is very little disagreement about the nature of formal logic, the same is not true regarding informal logic, which is understood in various (often incompatible) ways by various thinkers. After reviewing some of the more prominent conceptions of informal logic, I will present my own, defend it and then show how informal logic, so understood, is complementary to formal logic.     

The expressibility of fragments of Hybrid Graph Logic on finite digraphs

Hybrid Graph Logic is a logic designed for reasoning about graphs and is built from a basic modal logic, augmented with the use of nominals and a facility to verify the existence of paths in graphs. We study the finite model theory of Hybrid Graph Logic. In particular, we develop pebble games for Hybrid Graph Logic and use these games to exhibit strict infinite hierarchies involving fragments of Hybrid Graph Logic when the logic is used to define problems involving finite digraphs. These fragments are parameterized by the quantifier-rank of formulae along with the numbers of propositional symbols and nominals that are available. We ascertain exactly the relative definability of these parameterized fragments of the logic.     

The Undecidability of Propositional Adaptive Logic

We investigate and classify the notion of final derivability of two basic inconsistency-adaptive logics. Specifically, the maximal complexity of the set of final consequences of decidable sets of premises formulated in the language of propositional logic is described. Our results show that taking the consequences of a decidable propositional theory is a complicated operation. The set of final consequences according to either the Reliability Calculus or the Minimal Abnormality Calculus of a decidable propositional premise set is in general undecidable, and can be -complete. These classifications are exact. For first order theories even finite sets of premises can generate such consequence sets in either calculus.     

An Operational Logic of Proofs with Positive and Negative Information

The logic of proofs was introduced by Artemov in order to analize the formalization of the concept of proof rather than the concept of provability. In this context, some operations on proofs play a very important role. In this paper, we investigate some very natural operations, paying attention not only to positive information, but also to negative information (i.e. information saying that something cannot be a proof). We give a formalization for a fragment of such a logic of proofs, and we prove that our fragment is complete and decidable.     

论八卦是八个逻辑范式

基于太极代数,本文证明八卦是八个逻辑范式,八卦中包含四对矛盾关系,其中"六子"构成辩证逻辑组。八卦是生命生产和思想生产都必须共同遵循的变化法则。学界似有这样的倾向,以为《周易》中只有类推逻辑而没有演绎逻辑,本文证明这种观点是不能成立的。八卦本质上就是演绎逻辑的,卦象的本质是逻辑法则。因此,基于卦象的联想或推理不能脱离八卦的逻辑内涵;否则,想象的灵活性必将导致卦象上的混淆,甚至使八卦沦为象数游戏的工具。     

The Logic of Pragmatic Truth

The mathematical concept of pragmatic truth, first introduced in Mikenberg, da Costa and Chuaqui (1986), has received in the last few years several applications in logic and the philosophy of science. In this paper, we study the logic of pragmatic truth, and show that there are important connections between this logic, modal logic and, in particular, Jaskowski's discussive logic. In order to do so, two systems are put forward so that the notions of pragmatic validity and pragmatic truth can be accommodated. One of the main results of this paper is that the logic of pragmatic truth is paraconsistent. The philosophical import of this result, which justifies the application of pragmatic truth to inconsistent settings, is also discussed.     

浅谈医学科研思维的逻辑性

医学科研思维过程中最重要的就是医学假说的提出、验证,推理和遵守逻辑思维的过程。它以抽象的概念、判断、推理为思维形式,通过分析、综合、比较、分类等多种逻辑思维方法进行操作,以达到它的最终目的。逻辑思维能力对于医学科研工作者是至关重要的,医学科研工作者应该不断加强逻辑修养,不断提升科研思维水准。     

The Logic and Meaning of Plurals. Part II

In this sequel to “The logic and meaning of plurals. Part I”, I continue to present an account of logic and language that acknowledges limitations of singular constructions of natural languages and recognizes plural constructions as their peers. To this end, I present a non-reductive account of plural constructions that results from the conception of plurals as devices for talking about the many. In this paper, I give an informal semantics of plurals, formulate a formal characterization of truth for the regimented languages that results from augmenting elementary languages with refinements of basic plural constructions of natural languages, and account for the logic of plural constructions by characterizing the logic of those regimented languages.