Complexity of categorical syllogisms: An integration of two metrics

The complexity of categorical syllogisms was assessed using the relational complexity metric, which is based on the number of entities that are related in a single cognitive representation. This was compared with number of mental models in an experiment in which adult participants solved all 64 syllogisms. Both metrics accounted for similarly large proportions of the variance, showing that complexity depends on the number of categories that are related in a representation of the combined premises, whether represented in multiple mental models, or by a single model. This obviates the difficulty with mental models theory due to equivocal evidence for construction of more than one mental model. The “no valid conclusion” response was used for complex syllogisms that had valid conclusions. The results are interpreted as showing that the relational complexity metric can be applied to syllogistic reasoning, and can be integrated with mental models theory, which together account for a wide range of cognitive performances.     

Automatic activation of categorical and abstract analogical relations in analogical reasoning

We examined activation of concepts during analogical reasoning. Subjects made either analogical judgments or categorical judgments about four-word sets. After each four-word set, they named the ink color of a single word in a modified Stroop task. Words that referred to category relations were primed (as indicated by longer response times on Stroop color naming) subsequent to analogical judgments and categorical judgments. This finding suggests that activation of category concepts plays a fundamental role in analogical thinking. When colored words referred to analogical relations, priming occurred subsequent to analogical judgments, but not to categorical judgments, even though identical four-word stimuli were used for both types of judgments. This finding lends empirical support to the hypothesis that, when people comprehend the analogy between two items, they activate an abstract analogical relation that is distinct from the specific content items that compose the analogy.     

Dimensional analysis of a categorical diagnostic interview: the DICA-IV

The aim of this study is to obtain dimensions from a categorical diagnostic interview. 512 children aged 8 to 17 attending public centers for children's mental health and presenting some form of psychological disorder were interviewed with the "Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents" (DICA-IV). Analysis of the principal components indicate that a two-dimensional model (externalizing-internalizing) satisfactorily explain the data collected from the children and their parents. The data from the adolescents are better represented by a three-dimensional model (attention problems-internalizing-antisocial behavior). The factor scales show good internal consistency and significantly relate to other criteria of psychopathology and incapacity (concurrent validity). These results show that it is possible to use DICA-IV to obtain categorical and dimensional indicators simultaneously. The latter are particularly sensitive for measuring changes over the course of disorders.     

Bias in spatial memory: a categorical endorsement

Two experiments investigated how angular estimates reflect bias as a function of response mode, geometric plane of variation, number of implicit categories, memory load and intervening task conditions. In Experiment 1, participants made motor and verbal estimates of incline and azimuth from memory. Estimates in both response modes showed signs of bias predicted by a single-category adaptation of Huttenlocher et al. [Huttenlocher, J., Hedges, L. V., & Duncan, S. (1991). Categories and particulars: Prototype effects in estimating spatial location. Psychological Review, 98, 352-376] category-adjustment model. In Experiment 2, participants made motor estimates of azimuth from memory under a variety of conditions. Stimuli in this experiment were distributed along two contiguous spatial categories. Although increasing levels of cognitive load did not produce a graded effect, participants' estimates were biased and were well described by a multiple-category adaptation of the category-adjustment model. Results from both studies supported an implicit region-based model of bias in spatial memory. These findings were discussed with respect to accounts of spatial memory that propose multiple systems or formats for coding.     

Materials for an analysis of a just universe

There is one assumption that is shared by practically all popular religious and philosophic systems, ancient and modern, Eastern and Western. In truth it may well be that it is this single assumption which makes such ‘systems’ possible. That shared assumption is the belief in a ‘just universe’, i.e. ‘just’ in the sense of morally ordered, morally predictable and morally explainable. This assumption rests, as most assumptions must, on pragmatic grounds; that is to say, the assumption is retained or used because it gets the users where they want to go, i.e. the assumption works. But if it could be shown that this assumption, aside from being useful, leads to insuperable logical or empirical problems, then this might be prima facie grounds for rejecting the assumption. Part I examines the historical roots of the assumption of a just universe. Part II, examines three implications that would seem to follow from the assumption that the universe, the world, is a just place in which to live. Part III explores the unacceptable consequences that are found in and that follow from these three implications and that necessitate the rejection of the assumption of the just universe of Part I.     

Imagery and linguistic factors affecting the solution of linear syllogisms

The present article examines the role of imagery in the solution of linear syllogisms and attempts to bring about a resolution between previous theories based on imagery and those based on linguistics. Syllogisms rated by subjects as evoking high imagery are solved faster and more accurately than those rated as evoking low imagery. In some cases, regarding the conflicts between imagery and linguistic theories, both theories are supported, depending on whether one uses error rate or latency as the measure of difficulty. This discrepancy is resolved by suggesting that imagery theory is more of a theory of problem solving and is best examined through the measure of error rate. Linguistic theory is more a measure of sentence processing and is best measured using latencies. This is supported by the use of syllogisms which control for linguistic parameters. In such cases, predictions of imagery theory are supported. The two opposing theories are probably more complementary than oppositional.     

Expanding Treatment for the Elderly: Counseling in a Private Medical Practice

The exploding elderly population demands expanded services in new settings. A primary care practice invites unique opportunities for counseling geriatric patients with psychosocial concerns.     

Dual scaling for the analysis of categorical data

Dual scaling is a set of related techniques for the analysis of a wide assortment of categorical data types including contingency tables and multiple-choice, rank order, and paired comparison data. When applied to a contingency table, dual scaling also goes by the name "correspondence analysis," and when applied to multiple-choice data in which there are more than 2 items, "optimal scaling" and "multiple correspondence analysis. " Our aim of this article was to explain in nontechnical terms what dual scaling offers to an analysis of contingency table and multiple-choice data.     

Contingency table testing for categorical data: SAS implementation

Nonparametric and distribution-free tests of categorical data provide an evaluation of statistical significance between groups of subjects differing in their assignment to a set of categories. This paper describes an implementation in the SAS programming language of three tests to evaluate categorical data. One of these tests, the Contingency Table Test for Ordered Categories evaluates data assessed on at least an ordinal scale where the categories are in ascending or descending rank order. The remaining two tests, Fisher’s Fourfold-Table Test for Variables with Two Categories and Fisher’s Contingency Table Test for Variables with More than Two Categories, evaluate data assessed on either a nominal or an ordinal scale. The program described completes analysis of a 2°C categorical contingency table as would be obtained from the application of a multiple-level rating scale to the behavior of a treatment and a control group.     

Why researchers don't study women: The responses of 62 researchers

Sixty-two researchers accounting for 64 single-sex studies that appeared in 1970 1971 issues of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology reported why they had limited their studies to a single sex and why they had preferred either males or females for their studies. Also, articles and abstracts were read as a way of checking researchers' reporting practices. The replies were analyzed for thematic content and formed three major types: scientific (56%), practical (28%), and extrascientific (15%). The responses helped to explain why there has been an imbalance in psychology which led to the study of men rather than women instead of the exploration of both sexes. Sggestions are offered to help counteract this trend in future psychological research and reporting.     

A reasoning method for a paraconsistent logic

A proof method for automation of reasoning in a paraconsistent logic, the calculus C1* of da Costa, is presented. The method is analytical, using a specially designed tableau system. Actually two tableau systems were created. A first one, with a small number of rules in order to be mathematically convenient, is used to prove the soundness and the completeness of the method. The other one, which is equivalent to the former, is a system of derived rules designed to enhance computational efficiency. A prototype based on this second system was effectively implemented.     

Spatial associations in relational reasoning: Evidence for a SNARC-like effect

Relational reasoning (A > B, B > C, therefore A > C) shares a number of similarities with numerical cognition, including a common behavioural signature, the symbolic distance effect. Just as reaction times for evaluating relational conclusions decrease as the distance between two ordered objects increases, people need less time to compare two numbers when they are distant (e.g., 2 and 8) than when they are close (e.g., 3 and 4). Given that some remain doubtful about such analogical representations in relational reasoning, we determine whether numerical cognition and relational reasoning have other overlapping behavioural effects. Here, using relational reasoning problems that require the alignment of six items, we provide evidence showing that the subjects' linear mental representation affects motor performance when evaluating conclusions. Items accessible from the left part of a linear representation are evaluated faster when the response is made by the left, rather than the right, hand and the reverse is observed for items accessible from the right part of the linear representation. This effect, observed with the prepositions to the left of and to the right of as well as with above and below, is analogous to the SNARC (Spatial Numerical Association of Response Codes) effect, which is characterized by an interaction between magnitude of numbers and side of response.     

Spatial associations in relational reasoning: evidence for a SNARC-like effect

Relational reasoning (A > B, B > C, therefore A > C) shares a number of similarities with numerical cognition, including a common behavioural signature, the symbolic distance effect. Just as reaction times for evaluating relational conclusions decrease as the distance between two ordered objects increases, people need less time to compare two numbers when they are distant (e.g., 2 and 8) than when they are close (e.g., 3 and 4). Given that some remain doubtful about such analogical representations in relational reasoning, we determine whether numerical cognition and relational reasoning have other overlapping behavioural effects. Here, using relational reasoning problems that require the alignment of six items, we provide evidence showing that the subjects' linear mental representation affects motor performance when evaluating conclusions. Items accessible from the left part of a linear representation are evaluated faster when the response is made by the left, rather than the right, hand and the reverse is observed for items accessible from the right part of the linear representation. This effect, observed with the prepositions to the left of and to the right of as well as with above and below, is analogous to the SNARC (Spatial Numerical Association of Response Codes) effect, which is characterized by an interaction between magnitude of numbers and side of response.     

Abductive inference in defeasible reasoning: a model for research programmes

Abduction is regarded as the inference process that goes from observations to explanations within a more general context or theoretical framework. There are good characterizations of abduction of surprising observations in monotonic theories. Also, in normal logic programs there are a tight relation among SLDNF and the abduction of negative literals. However, a problem that faces abduction is the explanation of anomalous observations, i.e., observations that are contradictory with respect to the current theory. For this reason, in this work we will consider the problem of embedding abduction of surprising and anomalous observations in defeasible (nonmonotonic) theories. We discuss some issues arising the pragmatic acceptance of abductive inferences in defeasible theories, and how to accommodate anomalous observations and characterize all the possible outcomes that a defeasible theory may face when confronted with new evidence. We explore the use of partial structures approach as a semantic foundation for our system. Finally, we discuss an application of our system as a formal device for representing the methodology of scientific research programmes. In this representation, a programme is regarded as a defeasible theory that draws predictions. When confronted with surprising or anomalous observations, the programme protects itself by means of heuristic procedures, which are represented in our system as abductive inference procedures.     

Conditional reasoning with causal premises: Evidence for a retrieval model

This study examined the hypothesis that a key process in conditional reasoning with concrete premises involves on-line retrieval of information about potential alternate antecedents. Participants were asked to solve reasoning problems with causal conditional premises (If cause P then effect Q). These premises were inserted into short contexts. The availability of potential alternatives was varied from one context to another by adding statements that explicitly invalidated one or more of these alternatives (i.e., other causes that lead to the effect (Q). The invalidated alternatives differed in the degree of their semantic association to the consequent term (Q). The results show that the effect of invalidating one or more potential alternatives on the two uncertain logical forms, AC and DA, was largely determined by their relative associative strength. These results strongly support a model for conditional reasoning with causal premises that supposes that a key element in responding to the uncertain logical forms is on-line retrieval of at least one potential alternative antecedent.     

The nature of learned categorical perception effects: a psychophysical approach

Categorical perception is often cited as a striking example of cognitive influences on perception. However, some evidence suggests the term is a misnomer, with effects based on cognitive not perceptual processing. Here, using a psychophysical approach, we provide evidence consistent with a learned categorical perception effect that is dependent on analysis within the visual processing stream. An improvement in participants' discrimination between grating patterns that they had learned to place in different categories was 'tuned' around the orientation of the patterns experienced during category learning. Thus, here, categorical perception may result from attentionally modulated perceptual learning about diagnostic category features, based upon orientation-selective stages of analysis. This argues strongly that category learning can alter our perception of the world.