The effects of anxiety on intellectual performance: When and why are they found?

An experiment tested the effects on intelligence and creativity test performance of two 16PF primary anxiety traits, and general mood and activation components of state anxiety. Two attentional theories of the deleterious effects of anxiety on performance were also tested. Subjects were 80 male students. Trait and state components of anxiety appeared to affect creativity test performance independently. Intelligence test performance was insensitive to anxiety variables. The O anxiety primary factor was significantly negatively correlated with creativity test performance, but the unique variance of the other anxiety primary (Q4) was associated with higher levels of performance. Neither specific attentional theory was supported, but data were generally compatible with “dual-mechanism” theories of anxiety, which posit separate detrimental and sometimes facilitative effects of anxiety on performance.     

The interactive effects of extraversion and arousal on performance: Are creativity tests anomalous?

Existing research on extraversion and creativity test performance raises several problems. Reported linear associations between extraversion and creativity are inconsistent with each other. Interactive effects of extraversion and stressors on creativity are inconsistent with data obtained using other tasks. Given these anomalous interactions, it is possible that arousal theory assumptions are invalid for creativity tests. The research reported here aimed to provide further data on the relationship between personality and creativity, and to test assumptions made by arousal theory in explaining interactive effects of extraversion and arousal on performance. Two experiments on the effects of 16PF extraversion and trait anxiety, noise and arousal (measured by questionnaire) on a creativity index are reported. In general, extraversion and anxiety interacted as predicted by arousal theory. However in both experiments extraversion was independent of arousal, and data from the second experiment suggested that there was no marked linear or curvilinear relationship between creativity test performance and arousal.     

Mechanisms underlying the self-talk–performance relationship: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety

ObjectivesThe present study examined the effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence, anxiety, and task performance in young athletes.MethodsParticipants were 72 tennis players. The experiment was conducted in five sessions: baseline assessment, three training sessions, and final assessment. After the baseline assessment participants were divided and assigned randomly into experimental and control groups. The two groups followed the same training program with the experimental group practicing the use of self-talk. In the last session, the final assessment took place. A forehand drive test was used to evaluate task performance, and the Competitive Anxiety Inventory-2R was used to assess self-confidence and anxiety.ResultsA two-way mixed model MANOVA revealed that task performance improved for the experimental group (p < .01) and remained stable for the control group; self-confidence increased (p < .01) and cognitive anxiety decreased (p < .05) for the experimental group, whereas no changes were observed for the control group. Correlation analysis revealed that changes in task performance were moderately related to changes in self-confidence (p < .05).ConclusionsThe results of the study showed that self-talk can enhance self-confidence and reduce cognitive anxiety. Furthermore, it is suggested that increases in self-confidence can be regarded as a viable function explaining the facilitating effects of self-talk on performance.     

The effects of quantity,complexity, and attentional demand on children’s time perception

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of quantity, complexity, and attentional demand on children’s time perception. The appropriateness for children of two models of time perception founded primarily on adult research was examined. These models were the attentional hypothesis and the storage size hypothesis. Ninety-six children, 32 each of 6, 9, and 12 years, observed two and four displays of simple and complex shapes under conditions of higher (matching) or lower (looking) attentional demand. In accord with the attentional model, an inverse relationship was found between attentional demand and children’s time perception. However, in accord with the storage size model, a positive relation was found between quantity and children’s time perception. A developmental trend was also found: younger children were more susceptible to the quantity effect, and older children were more susceptible to the attentional demand effect. Results generalize adult findings to younger children, but the pattern of results is not easily explained solely by either model. Further refinements of either model, or development of a new model that can integrate the two separate findings, appears warranted.     

The beneficial effects of prosocial spending on happiness: work hard,make money,and spend it on others?

Previous research has shown that the way people spend their money is as important to happiness as how much money people earn. Specifically, it has been shown that spending money on others contributes more to an individual’s happiness than spending money on oneself. In the present study, we investigated this effect and examined the role of the money’s origin. Students were randomly assigned either to spend a small amount of money on themselves or to spend the money on others. Moreover, half of the participants received the money as a wage, whereas the other half received the money as a windfall. The results replicated previous research indicating that prosocial spenders report greater happiness than do selfish spenders. However, the happiness effect was unaffected by the source of the money (i.e. wage vs. windfall). Implications for well-being and happiness are discussed.     

The effects of driving environment complexity and dual tasking on drivers’ mental workload and eye blink behavior

The goal of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of eye blink behavior in measuring drivers’ mental workload. Previous research has shown that when mental workload increases with the primary task difficulty, blink frequency drops. On the opposite, the number of blinks increases when a cognitive secondary task has to be performed concurrently. However, the combined effects of the primary task difficulty and dual-tasking on blink rate have not been investigated. The present study was thus designed to vary systematically both the primary driving task and the cognitive secondary task demand to examine their combined effects on blink rate. The driving task was manipulated by varying the complexity of a simulated driving environment. The cognitive load was manipulated using a concurrent simple reaction time task or a complex calculation task. The results confirmed that eye blink frequency was a sensitive measure to elicit increased mental workload level coming from the driving environment. They also confirmed that blink rate increased with the introduction of a cognitive secondary task while blink duration was not affected. However, eye blink behavior did not provide a clear mental workload signature when driving task demands and dual-task conditions were varied simultaneously. The overall picture goes against the suitability of eye blink behavior to monitor drivers’ states at least when external and internal demands interact.     

The age of anxiety? Birth cohort change in anxiety and neuroticism, 1952-1993

Two meta-analyses find that Americans have shifted toward substantially higher levels of anxiety and neuroticism during recent decades. Both college student (adult) and child samples increased almost a full standard deviation in anxiety between 1952 and 1993 (explaining about 20% of the variance in the trait). The average American child in the 1980s reported more anxiety than child psychiatric patients in the 1950s. Correlations with social indices (e.g., divorce rates, crime rates) suggest that decreases in social connectedness and increases in environmental dangers may be responsible for the rise in anxiety. Economic factors, however, seem to play little role. Birth cohort, as a proxy for broad social trends, may be an important influence on personality development, especially during childhood.     

How general are the effects of trait anxiety and depressive symptoms on cognitive functioning?

A total of 3,781 healthy adults between 18 and 97 years of age completed trait anxiety and depressive symptoms inventories and also performed a battery of cognitive tests. Consistent with recent research on cognitive abilities, the cognitive variables could be organized into a hierarchical structure, with 5 first-order abilities and a single g-factor representing the variance common to the first-order abilities at the top of the hierarchy. Analyses were conducted to determine where in this hierarchy effects associated with trait anxiety and depressive symptoms were operating. The results indicated that trait anxiety and depressive symptoms had significant relations at the highest level in the hierarchy of cognitive abilities, but few relations of either characteristic were evident on the cognitive abilities, or on measures of working memory, after controlling influences at the g-factor level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Are the fruits of research available to all? The effects of sex and academic rank on reprint-sending behavior

There is considerable evidence in the psychological literature that perceived status often has a major effect on behavior. The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of two status variables in an academic setting by monitoring reprint-sending behavior. Reprints were requested from 1,200 authors of psychological articles by men and women of varying academic rank. Neither sex nor academic rank of requester had any significant effect on the total number of responses returned. However, male requesters received responses significantly faster than did female requesters. In addition, subsequent analyses indicated that reprint requests were more likely to be honored by male authors than by female authors.     

Editorial: Harmful or helpful to learning? The impact of seductive details on learning and instruction

Most previous research found negative effects on learning outcomes when interesting but irrelevant information (i.e., seductive details) is added to an instruction. To what degree such effects are bound to specific conditions is in the focus of this special issue. Specifically, 11 empirical studies are reported within this special issue. They all address the topic of seductive details in learning and instruction by focusing either on cognitive moderators (e.g., working memory capacity and current beliefs) or on noncognitive moderators (e.g., arousal and affect) of the seductive details effect. Taken together, results from the empirical studies hint towards new moderators and suggest that the negative effects of seductive details on learning outcomes may be smaller than expected based on previous research.     

The use of reflection-card by elite youth basketball players,head coach and team manager: effects on players’ performance and perceptions of users

The purpose of the present paper was to test the effectiveness of the r-cards in sport performance, and to examine what kind of benefits and challenges the head coach, team manager and female basketball players (N = 12) faced when using the r-cards. Mixed methods were employed to gather specific data to answer the research questions. Inferential statistical analyses were conducted to examine whether players’ performances in terms of their targeted defensive rebound percentage and free-throw percentage differed across the five matches played. No significant differences were found. However, evidence from the qualitative data provides a contrasting but insightful perspective. Subjectively, the r-cards strategy was seen as beneficial because it improved the team’s performance and preparations, helped the players in goal setting, identification of weaknesses, and recognition of effort. In contrast, realistic goal setting, irrelevance of some reflection questions, effort recognition, and feedback to head coach were found challenging in r-cards usage. The paper closes with a critical discussion on the implications for future use of r-cards in the field of sport coaching.     

Do peers make the place? Conceptual synthesis and meta-analysis of coworker effects on perceptions, attitudes, OCBs, and performance

The authors propose that broad aspects of lateral relationships, conceptualized as coworker support and coworker antagonism, are linked to important individual employee outcomes (role perceptions, work attitudes, withdrawal, and effectiveness) in a framework that synthesizes several theoretical predictions. From meta-analytic tests based on 161 independent samples and 77,954 employees, the authors find support for most of the proposed linkages. Alternative explanations are ruled out, as results hold when controlling for leader influences and mediation processes. The authors also observe differential strengths of coworker influence based on its valence, content, and severity, and on the social intensity of the task environment. The authors conclude with a call for more comprehensive, complex theory and investigation of coworker influences as part of the social environment at work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved).     

The influence of making judgments of learning on memory performance: Positive,negative, or both?

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review - A common measure of memory monitoring——judgments of learning (JOLs)——has recently been shown to have reactive effects on learning. When...     

What to do? The effects of discrepancies, incentives, and time on dynamic goal prioritization

This study examined factors that influence the dynamic pursuit of multiple goals over time. As hypothesized, goal-performance discrepancies were significantly related to subsequent time allocation. Greater distance from a given goal resulted in greater time subsequently allocated to that goal. In addition, the incentives offered for goal attainment determined the relative influence of discrepancies for each goal. When the incentives for each goal were equivalent, progress toward each goal exhibited equal influence, with greater time allocated to whichever goal was furthest from completion at the time. However, with an incentive available for only 1 of the 2 goals, time allocation was largely determined by progress toward the rewarded goal. Likewise, when incentives for each task differed in their approach-avoidance framing, progress toward the avoidance-framed goal was a stronger predictor of subsequent allocation than was progress toward the approach-framed goal. Finally, the influence of goal-performance discrepancies differed as a function of the time remaining for goal pursuit. The implications for future work on dynamic goal prioritization and the provision of performance incentives are discussed.     

The long arm of the state? Transnationalism,Islam, and nation-building: the case of Turkey and Morocco

From the moment the first Turkish and Moroccan workers migrated to Europe in the early 1960s, the Turkish and Moroccan states have been concerned with how to bind emigrated citizens to their country of origin. In this article, we focus on Islam as a multi-dimensional binding mechanism. Religion is a broad register that links emotion, affect, and senses of belonging and binds individuals to political and cultural projects of collective actors and states. As we will demonstrate, it is a field in which both states and migrants have developed a variety of activities and initiatives, but it is difficult to single out what pertains to the state and what not. We argue that although state involvement in these two cases differs markedly, there are some intriguing parallels when we concentrate on religion. In both cases, religious affiliation is a very complex source of binding and of fission. State-monitored transnational networks have been tools of binding, but the same networks have engendered processes of disengagement from the state.     

Are psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapies effective?: A review of empirical data

There is a need for empirical outcome research in psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapy. However, both the approach of empirically supported therapies (EST) and the procedures of evidence‐based medicine (EBM) have severe limitations making randomised controlled trials (RCTs) an absolute standard. After a critical discussion of this approach, the author reviews the empirical evidence for the efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy in specific psychiatric disorders. The review aims to identify for which psychiatric disorders RCTs of specific models of psychodynamic psychotherapy are available and for which they are lacking, thus providing a basis for planning further research. In addition, results of process research of psychodynamic psychotherapy are presented. As the methodology of RCTs is not appropriate for psychoanalytic therapy, effectiveness studies of psychoanalytic therapy are reviewed as well. Studies of psychodynamic psychotherapy published between 1960 and 2004 were identifed by a computerised search using Medline, PsycINFO and Current Contents. In addition, textbooks and journal articles were used. Twenty‐two RCTs were identifed of which 64% had not been included in the 1998 report by Chambless and Hollon. According to the results, for the following psychiatric disorders at least one RCT providing evidence for the efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy was identifed: depressive disorders (4 RCTs), anxiety disorders (1 RCT), post‐traumatic stress disorder (1 RCT), somatoform disorder (4 RCTs), bulimia nervosa (3 RCTs), anorexia nervosa (2 RCTs), borderline personality disorder (2 RCTs), Cluster C personality disorder (1 RCT), and substance‐related disorders (4 RCTs). According to results of process research, outcome in psychodynamic psychotherapy is related to the competent delivery of therapeutic techniques and to the development of a therapeutic alliance. With regard to psychoanalytic therapy, controlled quasi‐experimental effectiveness studies provide evidence that psychoanalytic therapy is (1) more effective than no treatment or treatment as usual, and (2) more effective than shorter forms of psychodynamic therapy. Conclusions are drawn for future research.     

“The effects of family-centered physiotherapy on the cognitive and motor performance in premature infants”

ObjectiveThe aim of this study is to investigate the effects of family centered physiotherapy according to the neurodevelopmental treatment (NDT) principles on mental and motor performance in premature infants.MethodsA total of 156 infant, ≥24/36 week + 6 days gestational age included in the study. All the infants were diagnosed by a child neurologist and referred to psychology and physiotherapy department for their neurodevelopmental assessment and treatment. Bayley Scale of Infant II (BSI-II) was used for neurodevelopmental assessment and Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) was used for assessing their motor performance. Seventy-eight of the infants were in the study group and 76 were recruited as age matched controls according to the classification of their gestational age. Family centered physiotherapy according to the neurodevelopmental treatment principles was used as an intervention and all the mothers are trained accordingly.ResultsCognitive Development Scores and Motor Development Scores of Bayley II were recorded for the 3., 6., 9., and 12 months respectively. Between the 3. and 12. month of gestational age, within-groups measurements in both Cognitive Development Scores (p < 0.001) and Motor Development Scores (p<0.001) were significantly increased. However, the improvements in both Cognitive Development Scores (p = 0.059) and Motor Development Scores (p = 0.334) between the groups was not different.ConclusionFamily centered physiotherapy with NDT principles may not be enough to improve motor and cognitive performance in preterm infants at the first year of age. For supporting the motor and cognitive development of the preterm infants other intervention modalities also should be considered. Keywords: infants; premature; early intervention     

The influence of task instruction on action coding: constraint setting or direct coding?

In 3 experiments, the authors manipulated response instructions for 2 concurrently performed tasks. Specifically, the authors' instructions described left and right keypresses on a manual task either as left versus right or as blue versus green keypresses and required either "left" versus "right" or "blue" versus "green" concurrent verbalizations. When instructions for responses on the 2 tasks were in terms of location (Experiment 1) or color (Experiments 2a and 2b), then compatible responses on the tasks were faster than incompatible responses. However, when the verbal task required "left" versus "right" responses but instructions for manual keypresses referred to blue versus green (Experiments 3a and 3b), then no response compatibility effects were observed. These results suggest that response labels used in the instruction directly determine the codes that are used to control responding.