Spatial patterns of sex offenders: Theoretical,empirical, and practical issues

The aim of the current article is to review the theoretical, empirical, and practical issues related to the spatial behavior of sex offenders. After describing three theoretical models related to geographic profiling, empirical studies are presented that investigate the links between offender characteristics, modus operandi variables, and the distances traveled by sex offenders. Different spatial typologies of sex offenders and investigative strategies that take into account the spatial component of criminal behavior are discussed.     

Linkage analysis: Modus operandi, ritual, and signature in serial sexual crime

This article examines a process of behavioral analysis, referred to as linkage analysis, used in identifying sexual offenses that have been committed by the same offender. This type of analysis examines behavior that is contained in three distinct components of a crime, i.e., the modus operandi (MO) or the “how to” of a crime; the ritual or fantasy-based behaviors for a particular type or series of sexual crimes; the signature or unique combination of behaviors, which suggests that a series of crimes has been perpetrated by the same offender. Linkage analysis involves five assessment procedures: (1) gathering detailed, varied, and multisource documentation; (2) reviewing the documentation and identifying significant features of each crime individually across the series; (3) classifying the significant features of the crime as either MO and/or ritualistic constructs; (4) comparing the combination of MO and ritualistic features across the crimes to determine if a signature exists; (5) compiling a written analysis that details the conclusions derived from the available information. Results of this type of analysis can be used for investigative purposes and, in some instances, can help to inform the decision-making of the courts.     

Shortcuts to geographic profiling success: a reply to Rossmo (2005)

In ‘Geographic profiling: The fast, frugal, and accurate way’ (Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2004, vol. 18, pp. 105–121), we demonstrated that most people are able to predict the home location of a serial offender by using a simple prediction strategy that exploits patterns found in the offender's spatial behaviour. In this issue of Applied Cognitive Psychology, Rossmo challenges the validity of this research with respect to our data selection and methods of analysis. In response, we argue that: his proposed method for selecting data is unscientific; there is little evidence to support his claim that five crimes are required before profiles can be accurate; search area as a measure of profile accuracy has not yet been shown to be more useful than error distance; the heuristics we have examined are defined correctly and do lead to improvements in profile accuracy; and computerized geographic profiling is not a free service. Our comments aim to generate constraint in those intent on building confidence in computerized geographic profiling systems in the absence of strong empirical evidence to support their use. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An examination of the assumptions of specialization, mental disorder, and dangerousness in sex offenders

Sex offenders have been singled out for differential treatment by the legal and mental health systems. This article attempts to inform law reform efforts and criminal justice mental health policy by examining the assumptions underlying differential legal and mental health treatment of sex offenders. These assumptions include the theories that sex offenders are mentally disordered and in need of treatment, specialists in sex crimes, and more dangerous than other criminal offenders. Empirical findings demonstrate that sex offenders are not specialists in sex crimes and are not mentally disordered. Examination of past research suggests that sex offenders are not at more risk than other criminal offenders to commit future sex crimes. Implications of research findings for selective prosecution of sex crime cases, mental health policy, sex offender legislation, and predictions of future dangerousness are discussed. Proposals for future research needs and law reform are presented.     

Adolescent sex offenders with mental retardation: Literature review and assessment considerations

Working with adolescent sex offenders can be a difficult challenge. When an offender also suffers from mental retardation, this challenge increases. Unfortunately, this has been a largely ignored population, and clinicians working with this group often find little empirical work to assist them. Yet, many theorists posit that addressing sexual offending behavior when the offender is an adolescent may help prevent that behavior from continuing into adulthood. This is important because adult sexual offenders are often very difficult to treat. The current paper begins by reviewing literature on social deficits of individuals who have mental retardation. These deficits may contribute to aberrant sexual behavior among adolescents. The focus of the paper is then a review of literature on adolescent sex offenders, including those with mental retardation. We conclude this review with suggestions for assessment of adolescent sex offenders and with recommendations for future directions.     

A narrative review of research on clinical responses to the problem of sexual offenses in the last decade

Research on the treatment and programs for people who have committed sexual offenses has greatly increased in the past decade. The aim of this review is to discuss research that has been published over that period (2010–2019) that is relevant for treatment providers. The articles included in this review were found through PsycINFO and PubMed (Medline) using the keywords “treatment or therapy” and “sex offen*”. The inclusion criteria were publications that discuss treatment of persons who have committed sexual offenses (written in the English language only). Any articles that examined only special populations were excluded, such as those that examined persons who committed sexual offenses who were female, had intellectual disabilities, deafness, juveniles, etc., because these groups will likely have needs and responsivity factors that differ from the “average” natal-born male sex offender. Results showed that several meta-analyses indicate that treatment is effective in reducing sexual recidivism. The most frequently used treatment for sex offenders is cognitive behavioral therapy, which is often provided in conjunction with pharmacological treatment to reduce sexual impulsivity and/or sex drive. This review is limited to the specific key search terms. The findings of this review support the use of treatment and a community reintegration approach when treating persons who have committed sexual crimes to prevent sexual recidivism.     

An Exploration of Rapists' Motivations as Illustrated by Their Crime Scene Actions: Is the Gender of the Victim an Influential Factor?

An aim of this paper was to examine if the rapist's motivations of anger and power as inferred from rape crime scene behaviours differentiates between rape victim genders. In addition, it was sought to analyse the resistance strategies employed by rape victims to investigate whether gender influences victim–offender behavioural interactions. A sample of 24 female and 12 male rape victims aged from 13 to 39 years were analysed. The data were extracted from the US National Crime Survey, which contained 12 reported cases of male rape. It was hypothesised that the theme of power would be evident from the rapists' behaviour as illustrated by the crime scene actions and victim–offender interaction. Smallest Space Analysis, a multi‐dimensional scaling technique, was employed to identify the themes present in the perpetration of rape. The crime scene actions illustrated several distinctions relating to the theme of power present in the offender's motives irrespective of the victim's gender. An additional finding was that victim resistance strategies differentiated between male and female rape victims. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mathematics of geographic profiling

We begin by describing some of the mathematical foundations of the geographic profiling problem. We then present a new mathematical framework for the geographic profiling problem based on Bayesian statistical methods that makes explicit connections between assumptions on offender behaviour and the components of the mathematical model. It also can take into account local geographic features that either influence the selection of a crime site or influence the selection of an offender's anchor point. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Legal issues raised in treating sex offenders

For the past 50 years the criminal justice system has distinguished sex offenders from other criminals. This has resulted in their differential treatment, with the goal being to eliminate their inappropriate behavior. This article discusses the history and status of mentally disordered sex offender (MDSO) statutes. A review of the legal issues which arise when treating a sex offender without statutory authorization is provided. A discussion of problems raised in treating the offender on both an inpatient and outpatient setting is presented. The article concludes with an analysis of the legal problems confronting the treatment provider in working with this group of individuals.     

Gender and Sex Role Differences in Group Decision-Making Social Interactions: A Behavioral Analysis1

Sex role formulations assume relationships between role orientation and adjustive social behavior. However, few studies have examined behavioral differences with respect to both gender and sex role orientation in realistically complex social interactions. In the current study, groups composed of four male and four female “representatives” from each sex role category (masculine-typed, feminine-typed, androgynous, and undifferentiated) were presented with two group decision-making tasks. Group interactions were videotaped and subjects' behavior was rated on social skill variables. Analyses of variance revealed gender differences with males performing more actively than females, especially when the content of the decision-making task involved more historically male-oriented topics. However, when subjects' group behavior was examined in relation to their sex role orientation, androgynous and masculine-typed persons of both sexes performed in a more active, instrumental manner than feminine-typed or undifferentiated persons. Further, correlational analyses indicated that females' masculinity scores were substantially associated with ratings of effectiveness in the decision-making groups. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

When to Refrain from Using Likelihood Surface Methods for Geographic Offender Profiling: An Ex Ante Test of Assumptions

Likelihood surface methods for geographic offender profiling rely on several assumptions regarding the underlying location choice mechanism of an offender. We propose an ex ante test for checking whether a given set of crime locations is compatible with two necessary assumptions: circular symmetry and distance decay. The proposed (SDD) test compares the observed inter point distances of a given series of crimes with a theoretical distribution function governed by these assumptions, using a Monte Carlo simulation procedure for approximating that distribution function. We apply the SDD test to data on serial burglary from both the UK and the Netherlands. In most cases, the assumption of an underlying symmetric distance decay function has to be rejected. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Testing Existing Classifications of Serial Murder Considering Gender: An Exploratory Analysis of Solo Female Serial Murderers

Serial murder is a genre of crime that has received a great deal of media and academic attention, yet, serial murder committed by women has only begun to garner a portion of this attention within the last 15 years. This study examines the reliability of Kelleher and Kelleher's classification rubric, the only classification system developed for female serial murderers, as well as considering Hickey's classification of serial offenders by location. Other variables associated with homicide research have also been examined to determine their roles in both these crimes and classifying offenders. The current research will demonstrate that offender motivation is not an ideal basis for the classification of female serial murderers, who tend to defy simple or singular classification within existing typologies. The other variables analysed indicate that victim–offender relationship and victim approach are important to understanding these female offenders and their crimes, as well as the possible development of more accurate classification systems. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

SEX ROLE STEREOTYPING,ABILITY AND PERFORMANCE: PRIOR RESEARCH AND NEW DIRECTIONS1

Although there is a reasonable body of research pointing up the negative impact of sex role stereotypical thinking on selection decisions, limited attention has been paid to the impact of such thinking on the perceived and actual performance of women in management. Among the suggested new research avenues are the ways in which sex role stereotypical thinking impacts on organizational factors, such as through differential placement, tokenism and supervisory bias, so as to impair on-the-job performance. Furthermore, it is argued that the relationship between power and political behavior and effective managerial performance needs examination, with particular emphasis on the way in which sex role stereotypical thinking may limit a woman manager's opportunity to acquire or utilize work-related power acquisition behaviors.     

Examining Predictors Which May Influence Sentencing Outcomes for Individuals Convicted of Offenses against Children: A Brief Report

Numerous studies examine sentencing decisions, yet little attention has been given to sentencing of child maltreatment and, more specifically, on variables that could impact sentencing outcomes for this form of criminality. Using Pennsylvania Sentencing Data for 2006, this research adds to the existing sentencing research by exploring predictors that might influence sentencing decisions for individuals convicted of crimes against children. The findings indicate that offender sex significantly affects the sentencing decision and offender age significantly affects sentencing length. In addition, all offense characteristics significantly influence the sentencing length decision. Implication of these results and directions for future research are discussed.     

A Model of Friendship Similarity in Mildly Deviant Behaviors1

Kandel's research on the relationship between friendship similarity and deviant behavior in adolescents is extended by a consideration of more mildly deviant behaviors, controlling for the possible spurious effects of sex, race, and grade. Tversky's theory of elimination by aspect is used to model the individual level decision-making process involved in friendship selection, and a contingency table model is used as an analytic framework. Results indicate that in females, even controlling for obvious friendship selection factors, mildly deviant behaviors like smoking, drinking, and particularly sexual intercourse affect the observed friendship structure. No such relationship is found in males, however. Tentative theories to explain this difference are proposed.     

Do scientific theories affect men's evaluations of sex crimes?

Evolutionary psychology accounts of gender differences in sexual behaviors in general and men's sexual aggression, in particular, has been criticized for legitimizing males' sexual misconduct. To empirically assess such critiques, two studies examined how men's judgments of male sex crimes (solicitation of sex from a prostitute; rape) are influenced by exposure to (a) evolutionary psychological theories and (b) social‐constructivist theories. Across two studies, a consistent pattern emerged compared with a control condition (a) exposure to evolutionary psychology theories had no observable impact on male judgments of men's criminal sexual behavior, whereas (b) exposure to social‐constructivist theories did affect judgments, leading men to evaluate sex crimes more harshly. Additional results (from Study 2) indicate that this effect is mediated by perceptions of male control over sexual urges. These results have implications for journalists, educators, and scientists. Aggr. Behav. 37:440–449, 2011. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Application of the behavioral investigative support system for profiling perpetrators of serial sexual assaults

The authors developed a data-based profiling system in order to support offender profiling. The system stored incident records of prior offenders. Inputting offence details of an unsolved incident, a probability score was assigned to each prior offender in the system; the score represented the behavioral similarity with the unsolved incident. The system then ranked all offenders in the system according to the probability scores, and prioritized the high-ranked offenders as possible suspects. Moreover, the system inferred the characteristics of unknown offenders by accumulating characteristics of the high-ranked offenders. The system achieved promising accuracy, especially for linking crimes to perpetrators. In 45 out of 81 simulation trials, the target offenders were retrieved as a rank score of 1 from among 868 sex offenders.     

Modification of children's gender-stereotyped behavior: General issues and research considerations

This paper reviews some recent studies that have attempted to change gender-stereotyped behavior or attitudes in children. While such efforts have often been successful, at least on a short-term basis, enough inconsistency exists to suggest that more detailed theoretical analyses are required to increase the efficacy of such modification attempts. The review suggested at least four factors that needed additional empirical and theoretical attention as factors in susceptibility to counterstereotyping manipulations. These included: (a) the child's developmental level, (b) the relationship between sex role cognitions and behavior, (c) the degree of situational consistency of gender-stereotyped behavior, and (d) the role of individual initial differences in determining modification outcomes. The importance of these factors are discussed in the context of the existing literature.     

A review of the factors that can influence the effectiveness of sexual offender treatment: Risk,need, responsivity,and process issues

The aim of this paper is to review various factors that may affect the effectiveness of sex offender treatment. First, attention to risk level is discussed as an important factor in terms of ensuring that treatment is administered according to the level of an offender's problems and that treatment addresses criminogenic needs. Second, a number of responsivity/intra-individual characteristics (e.g., psychopathy, motivation, and locus of control), which may influence treatment outcome, are examined. Third, the importance of considering process issues, such as the therapeutic climate of the group, the composition of the group, and therapist characteristics is discussed. Finally, suggestions for future research and for optimizing the effectiveness of sex offender treatment are provided.