From understanding others' needs to prosocial action: Motor and social abilities promote infants' helping

In the present study, we test the main hypothesis that infants' understanding of others' needs translates into helping behavior, when critical motor and social competencies have emerged, early in the second year. We assessed the understanding of others' needs in an eye‐tracking paradigm and the helping behavior of 10‐ (n = 41) and 16‐month‐olds (n = 37). Furthermore, we assessed the motor and social abilities of 16‐month‐olds. Critically, while infants understood others' needs already at 10 months, fine motor and social interaction skills moderated the link between infants' prosocial understanding and helping behavior at 16 months. This provides first evidence that infants' helping behavior relates to their understanding of others' needs. Furthermore, we found that fine motor, gross motor, and social interaction skills predicted early helping behavior by themselves. These findings highlight that the emergence of infants' helping behavior is the result of a developmental system that includes infants' understanding of others' needs and also their motor and social competencies. The link between infants' understanding of others' needs and their early helpful actions provide further support for the prosocial nature of early helping behavior.     

Motor skill learning in children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder

ObjectiveThe question whether children with DCD have motor learning deficits is difficult to answer based on the current body of knowledge. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of practice on motor skill acquisition, retention and transfer in children with and without DCD using a variety of games in a virtual environment.MethodPerformance on a criterion task (Wii ski game) and MABC-2 balance subscore was compared between children with DCD (n = 33) and TD children (n = 28) following 10 weeks of playing active video games. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare changes in the two groups.ResultsThe children with DCD demonstrated lower performance on the criterion task than the TD group (p = 0.031). A time by group interaction indicated that the difference in performance on the criterion task became larger over time (p = 0.039). No differences were found in retention between groups. Large improvement (Cohen d 1.11) was observed for the children with DCD on the MABC-2 balance subscore.ConclusionBased on the criterion task results, typically developing children seem more proficient in learning new skills compared to children with DCD. More research is needed to confirm that children with DCD have a problem to transfer skills to other contexts.     

Australian parents’ willingness to use a rideshare vehicle to transport their unaccompanied children

This study aimed to identify the key factors associated with Australian parents' willingness to use a rideshare vehicle to transport their unaccompanied child(ren). Six hundred and thirty-one participants completed an online survey (M = 39.2 years, SD = 10.5, Range = 18.0–70.0 years; Female: 63.4%). Most participants (62.1%) reported that they would 'never' use a rideshare vehicle to transport their unaccompanied child(ren). The results of a logistic regression model showed that participants': previous use of a rideshare vehicle with their child, annual mileage, propensity for technology adoption, aberrant driving behaviours, as well their requirements for vehicle features were significantly associated with their willingness to use a rideshare vehicle to transport their unaccompanied child, χ2(7) = 159.59, p < 0.001. Overall, the findings suggest that Australian parents are mostly ‘unwilling’ to use a rideshare vehicle to transport their unaccompanied children. Understanding the views of parents towards emerging transportation modes for their children is crucial for urban planning, traffic engineering, economic and social mobility and ultimately, on supporting safe modes of transportation.     

Interaction of athletes' resilience and coaches' social support on the stress-burnout relationship: A conjunctive moderation perspective

ObjectiveIn line with Smith's (1986) cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout, the purpose of this study was to examine the conjunctive effects of athletes' resilience and coaches' social support on the relationship between life stress and burnout.DesignCross-sectional, self-report survey.MethodsA total of 218 student-athletes (M_age = 20.04 yrs, SD = 1.32; males = 159, females = 59) participating in team and individual sports completed life stress, resilience, coaches' social support, and athlete burnout scales. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses with one- two- and three-way interactions examined disjunctive and conjunctive moderations.ResultsResilience and coaches' social support conjunctively moderated the stress-burnout relationship. Specifically the interaction of athletes' resilience with coaches' informational and tangible social support moderated athletes' stress-burnout relationship in high and low life stress conditions.ConclusionsWe suggest coaches provide useful social support and foster athletes' resilience to prevent stress-induced burnout in athletes.     

Young Children's Help‐Seeking as Active Information Gathering

Young children's social learning is a topic of great interest. Here, we examined preschoolers’ (M = 52.44 months, SD = 9.7 months) help‐seeking as a social information gathering activity that may optimize and support children's opportunities for learning. In a toy assembly task, we assessed each child's competency at assembling toys and the difficulty of each step of the task. We hypothesized that children's help‐seeking would be a function of both initial competency and task difficulty. The results confirmed this prediction; all children were more likely to seek assistance on difficult steps and less competent children sought assistance more often. Moreover, the magnitude of the help‐seeking requests (from asking for verbal confirmation to asking the adult to take over the task) similarly related to both competency and difficulty. The results provide support for viewing children's help‐seeking as an information gathering activity, indicating that preschoolers flexibly adjust the level and amount of assistance to optimize their opportunities for learning.     

Gender and age differences in parent–child emotion talk

This study examined gender differences in emotion word use during mother–child and father–child conversations. Sixty‐five Spanish mothers and fathers and their 4‐ (M = 53.50, SD = 3.54) and 6‐year‐old (M = 77.07, SD = 3.94) children participated in this study. Emotion talk was examined during a play‐related storytelling task and a reminiscence task (conversation about past experiences). Mothers mentioned a higher proportion of emotion words than did fathers. During the play‐related storytelling task, mothers of 4‐year‐old daughters mentioned a higher proportion of emotion words than did mothers of 4‐year‐old sons, whereas fathers of 4‐year‐old daughters directed a higher proportion of emotion words than did fathers of 4‐year‐old sons during the reminiscence task. No gender differences were found with parents of 6‐year‐old children. During the reminiscence task daughters mentioned more emotion words with their fathers than with their mothers. Finally, mothers' use of emotion talk was related to whether children used emotion talk in both tasks. Fathers' use of emotion talk was only related to children's emotion talk during the reminiscence task.     

Cultural differences in body dissatisfaction: Japanese adolescents compared with adolescents from China,Malaysia, Australia,Tonga, and Fiji

Cultural influences on the body image of 133 female and 99 male Japanese adolescents aged 12–18 years (M = 15.9, SD = 1.2) were compared to those of a databank of 1233 female and 1149 male adolescents also aged 12–18 years (M = 14.9, SD = 1.5) from five cultures – Chinese, Malaysian, Australian, Tongan, and indigenous Fijian – surveyed previously using identical body image measures (Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz et al., 2012). Japanese adolescents reported the highest levels of body dissatisfaction despite possessing among the lowest body mass index (BMI) and also reported among the highest levels of media influence on their body image. Subsequent path analyses revealed that for Japanese adolescents cultural identification with modern Japanese values were associated with increased body dissatisfaction, and that this association was mediated by level of media influence. These results highlight the importance of cultural influences, as well as individual differences in cultural values, in shaping Japanese adolescents' body image.     

Prevalence,correlates, and psychosocial outcomes of sport participation in young adult cancer survivors

Young adult cancer survivors (YACS) face unique challenges from their disease and treatments that may influence their sport participation choices as well as their psychosocial response.ObjectivesTo examine the prevalence, correlates, and psychosocial outcomes of sport participation in YACS.DesignA provincial, population-based mailed survey of 588 YACS in Alberta, Canada, was completed in May 2008 and included measures of sport participation, psychosocial health (depression, self-esteem, and stress), quality of life (QoL), and medical and demographic variables.ResultsOne third (32.5%) of YACS reported participating in a sport in the past month with the most common being golf (40.8%) and ice hockey (8.3%). YACS participating in sport reported an average frequency of 1.7 (SD = 1.0) days/week and an average duration of 119 min/session (SD = 68) for a total of 189 (SD = 164) min/week. Independent t-tests showed that YACS who participated in sport reported better psychosocial health and QoL including physical QoL (p < 0.001), mental QoL (p < 0.001), self-esteem (p < 0.001), depression (p < 0.001), and stress (p < 0.001). In multivariate regression analysis, 8.5% (p < 0.001) of the variance in sport participation was explained by being male (β = 0.17, p < 0.001), Caucasian (β = 0.15, p = 0.001), in better general health (β = 0.15, p < 0.001), and having a normal body mass index (β = ?0.10, p = 0.024).Discussion/conclusionsSport participation is associated with better psychosocial health and QoL in YACS but only a third participated in the past month. Randomized controlled trials examining sport as an intervention strategy to increase physical activity and improve health outcomes in YACS are warranted.     

Construct validity of the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence

ObjectivesThe Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) assesses young children's perceptions of movement skill competence: 12 perceived Fundamental Movement skills (FMS; based on the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd edition TGMD-2) and six Active Play activities (e.g. cycling). The main study purpose was to assess whether children's movement perception scores fit within the imposed constructs of Active Play and FMS by testing the latent structure and construct validity of the PMSC.DesignConstruct validation study.MethodsParticipants were part of the Melbourne Infant Feeding, Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT). The latent structure of the PMSC responses was tested through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling (BSEM). Internal consistency was conducted using polychoric correlation-based alphas.ResultsThe 303 children (boys 53.1%, n = 161) were aged 4–5 years (M = 4.7, SD = 0.46). The final model had an 18 item 3-factor solution with good fit indices (using CFA and BSEM). Factors were: Active Play (Bike, Board Paddle, Climb, Skate/Blade, Scooter, and Swim), Object Control – Hand Skills (Bounce, Catch, Hit, Throw), and FMS skills with a leg action (Gallop, Hop, Jump, Leap, Run, Step Slide, Kick, Roll). Alpha reliability values were: Active Play (0.78), Object Control-Hand Skills (0.76) and FMS-Dynamic Leg (0.84).ConclusionYoung children can distinguish between movement perceptions. The factors reflect the hypothesized structure in terms of FMS being distinguished from Active Play. Further research should investigate how and if these constructs change in children over time.     

Can imagery facilitate improvements in anticipation behavior?

ObjectivesWe examined the effectiveness of interventions involving imagery, video, and outcome feedback in improving anticipation in skilled junior cricket batters.Design/methodParticipants (N = 34, Mean age = 14.9 years, SD = 0.75) were allocated to one of three groups matched on imagery ability or a no practice control. The experimental groups received a four-week, film-based training intervention.ResultsAll experimental groups improved anticipation performance during training. Pre to posttest improvements were greater for the group that received outcome Knowledge of Results (KR) compared to groups that also received a video replay of the bowler's action or imaged the previously seen action. All experimental groups improved visual imagery ability, measured by the VMIQ-2, but only the imagery intervention group improved in the kinesthetic dimension.ConclusionOur findings show that all three interventions are effective in improving anticipation and benefit imagery ability.     

Reprint of “Co-occurring motor,language and emotional–behavioral problems in children 3–6 years of age”

PurposeDevelopmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) has been shown to co-occur with behavioral and language problems in school-aged children, but little is known as to when these problems begin to emerge, or if they are inherent in children with DCD. The purpose of this study was to determine if deficits in language and emotional–behavioral problems are apparent in preschool-aged children with movement difficulties.MethodTwo hundred and fourteen children (mean age 4 years 11 months, SD 9.8 months, 103 male) performed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2). Children falling at or below the 16th percentile were classified as being at risk for movement difficulties (MD risk). Auditory comprehension and expressive communication were examined using the Preschool Language Scales 4th Edition (PLS-4). Parent-reported emotional and behavioral problems were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).ResultsPreschool children with diminished motor coordination (n = 37) were found to have lower language scores, higher externalizing behaviors in the form of increased aggression, as well as increased withdrawn and other behavior symptoms compared with their typically developing peers.ConclusionsMotor coordination, language and emotional–behavioral difficulties tend to co-occur in young children aged 3–6 years. These results highlight the need for early intervention.     

Co-occurring motor,language and emotional–behavioral problems in children 3–6 years of age

PurposeDevelopmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) has been shown to co-occur with behavioral and language problems in school-aged children, but little is known as to when these problems begin to emerge, or if they are inherent in children with DCD. The purpose of this study was to determine if deficits in language and emotional–behavioral problems are apparent in preschool-aged children with movement difficulties.MethodTwo hundred and fourteen children (mean age 4 years 11 months, SD 9.8 months, 103 male) performed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2). Children falling at or below the 16th percentile were classified as being at risk for movement difficulties (MD risk). Auditory comprehension and expressive communication were examined using the Preschool Language Scales 4th Edition (PLS-4). Parent-reported emotional and behavioral problems were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).ResultsPreschool children with diminished motor coordination (n = 37) were found to have lower language scores, higher externalizing behaviors in the form of increased aggression, as well as increased withdrawn and other behavior symptoms compared with their typically developing peers.ConclusionsMotor coordination, language and emotional–behavioral difficulties tend to co-occur in young children aged 3–6 years. These results highlight the need for early intervention.     

Doping use in sport teams: The development and validation of measures of team-based efficacy beliefs and moral disengagement from a cross-national perspective

ObjectivesThe main goal of this research focused on the development and validation of three instruments designed to assess athletes' self-regulatory efficacy in team contexts, team collective efficacy and team moral disengagement with relevance for doping use across three European countries.DesignThe research relied on three distinct studies. A first qualitative study focused on item development. The second study assessed the factor structure and internal reliability of each of the new team instruments. The third study provided evidence for instrument validity by assessing the hypothesis that efficacy measures and moral disengagement would contribute to team athletes' doping intentions. The latter two studies also focused on the relations among measures and on measurement reliability, both within and across countries.MethodThe first study relied on focus group data collected from twenty-one team sport professionals (mean age = 34; SD = 11.65). Four hundred and fourteen adolescent athletes (mean age = 16.69; SD = 1.55) participated in the second study, whereas seven hundred forty-nine adolescent team athletes (mean age = 16.43; SD = 1.69) participated in the third study. For the latter two studies, team athletes were recruited across Italy, Germany and Greece and provided data on the new team measures. Only athletes participating in the third study provided data on doping intentions.ResultsThe findings of the three studies supported the empirical goals of the investigation and provided evidence for the factor structure, reliability and validity of the team instruments. Furthermore, multi-group findings supported the hypothesis that the new instruments would have equivalent measurement and validity characteristics across the three European countries. The conclusions focus on the conceptual and practical implications of these findings.     

Psychological and social functioning are associated with reports of perceived weight discrimination across eight years

This research uses the Health and Retirement Study to identify psychological and social factors that prospectively predict new reports of perceived weight discrimination among individuals who measure in the obese weight category. Participants (M_age = 66.89, SD = 8.33; 58% women) reported on their personality and social isolation, had a body mass index (BMI) ≥ 30, reported no perceived weight discrimination at baseline, and completed at least one assessment over the up to 8-year follow-up (N = 3,064). Eleven percent of participants reported new experiences of perceived weight discrimination. Higher Neuroticism and loneliness at baseline were associated with new reports; Conscientiousness was protective. This research adds to models of weight stigma by identifying psychological and social factors that contribute to reporting new instances of perceived weight discrimination.     

Effects of manipulating specific individual constraints on performance outcomes,emotions, and movement phase durations in Rugby Union place kicking

Place kicks present valuable opportunities to score points in Rugby Union, contributing almost half of all points scored at international level. From an ecological dynamics perspective, place kickers adapt to interacting task, environmental, and individual constraints in performance environments. The aim of this study was to analyse effects of specific manipulations of individual constraints (fatigue; expectation for success) on place kicking performance, movement phase durations, heart rate and self-reported emotions. Under representative task and environmental constraints on an outdoor training pitch, 12 experienced, male place kickers completed four testing sessions under every combination of manipulated high/low expectation for success and manipulated levels of high/low acute fatigue. Within each session of 12 place kicks, performance outcomes from three kicking locations of varying difficulty were recorded. ANOVA revealed a two-way interaction between fatigue and expectation manipulations on mean success percentage (p < 0.05), with higher success under low fatigue + low expectation (M ± SD = 58 ± 13%) and high fatigue + high expectation (M ± SD = 56 ± 14%), compared with separate manipulations of high expectation (M ± SD = 49 ± 14%) or high fatigue (M ± SD = 51 ± 14%). There were no significant effects on any movement phase durations. Manipulating expectation significantly heightened mean heart rate (p < 0.05) and influenced emotions reported by place kickers, including higher anger scores when there was high expectation for success. Coaches are encouraged to integrate place kicking into representative game scenarios in practice environments to faithfully represent key performance constraints (e.g. fatigue; expectation for success) in preparing kickers for competitive situations.     

Abnormal degree centrality and functional connectivity in Down syndrome: A resting-state fMRI study

Background/ObjectiveNeuroimaging studies have shown brain abnormalities in Down syndrome (DS) but have not clarified the underlying mechanisms of dysfunction. Here, we investigated the degree centrality (DC) abnormalities found in the DS group compared with the control group, and we conducted seed-based functional connectivity (FC) with the significant clusters found in DC. Moreover, we used the significant clusters of DC and the seed-based FC to elucidate differences between brain networks in DS compared with controls.MethodThe sample comprised 18 persons with DS (M = 28.67, SD = 4.18) and 18 controls (M = 28.56, SD = 4.26). Both samples underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging.ResultsDC analysis showed increased DC in the DS in temporal and right frontal lobe, as well as in the left caudate and rectus and decreased DC in the DS in regions of the left frontal lobe. Regarding seed-based FC, DS showed increased and decreased FC. Significant differences were also found between networks using Yeo parcellations, showing both hyperconnectivity and hypoconnectivity between and within networks.ConclusionsDC, seed-based FC and brain networks seem altered in DS, finding hypo- and hyperconnectivity depending on the areas. Network analysis revealed between- and within-network differences, and these abnormalities shown in DS could be related to the characteristics of the population.     

Children's motor imagery modality dominance modulates the role of attentional focus in motor skill learning

We investigated whether children's motor imagery dominance modulated the relationship between attentional focus and motor learning of a tossing task. One hundred and thirty-eight boys (age: M = 10.13, SD = 0.65) completed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire – Children (MIQ-C) to determine imagery modality dominance (kinesthetic, internal-visual, external-visual) and were randomly assigned to either an internal (n = 71) or external (n = 67) attentional focus group. Participants completed 60 trials of a tossing task with their non-dominant hand on day 1. Participants in the internal focus group were asked “to focus on the throwing arm”, whereas participants in the external focus group were instructed “to focus on the ball.” A retention test was conducted 24 h later to assess motor learning. Overall, the results from a nested, multiple linear regression analysis indicated the degree to which internal or external focus influences children's throwing accuracy is dependent upon their motor imagery modality dominance. Specifically, higher levels of external-visual imagery dominance resulted in greater motor learning for children adopting an external focus. In contrast, higher values of kinesthetic imagery dominance resulted in reduced motor learning for children who adopted an external focus. Despite the need for future research, we recommend motor imagery modality dominance assessments be considered when investigating the influence of attentional focus on motor learning, particularly when the target population is children.