Perceived somatotype and stereotypes of physique among Nigerian schoolchildren

The influence of perceived somatotype on stereotypes of behavior associated with body build was investigated among 160 male and 140 female Nigerian children in secondary school. In both groups, the perception of subjects' own physiques and discrepancy between their perceived and preferred physiques significantly explained the variance in the character trait scores attributed to body types. In general, the subjects attributed positive character traits to their perceived somatotypes and undesirable traits to the physiques with which they were dissatisfied. Thus, the perception of somatotype and discrepancy between perceived and preferred physique could significantly differentiate the character traits attributed to body build among male and female children.     

Traditional vs. nontraditional women and men's perceptions of the personalities and physiques of ideal women and men

Traditional and nontraditional women and men's perceptions of ideal people, in terms of both traits and physiques, were assessed using 80 male and 80 female Caucasian undergraduates as study participants. The data indicated that traditional women and men perceived the ideal male as mesomorphic and as having more instrumental than expressive traits. Nontraditional women and men also favored a mesomorphic physique for the ideal male, but they differed from traditionals in that they saw this mesomorphic male as being androgynous in regard to traits. Concerning the ideal female, traditional and nontraditional women and men preferred an androgynous physique, but they differed in their perceptions of the ideal personality for a woman. Traditional women and men perceived their ideal women as having more expressive than instrumental traits, whereas nontraditional women and men saw their ideal women as being androgynous in regard to traits. The results are discussed within the framework of Bem's gender schema and enculturated lens theories.     

FEMALE AND MALE PERCEPTIONS OF IDEAL BODY SHAPES: Distorted Views Among Caucasian College Students

Recent studies have demonstrated that women overestimate male preferences for thin female figures. This study examined whether women also overestimate the desirability of thin figures among female peers. Using body silhouettes employed by Fallon and Rozin (1985), 87 college women and 118 college men indicated the size of their own body figure, their ideal figure, the figure most attractive to other-sex peers, and the figure most attractive to same-sex peers. As predicted, the female silhouette that women selected as most attractive to same-sex peers was significantly thinner than the silhouette that women actually selected as most desirable. College men also misjudged the body preference of same-sex peers, exaggerating the extent to which other men perceived large physiques as ideal and desirable.     

Social perceptions of male and female extreme mesomorphs.

In this study, male and female university students in the United States were exposed to mesomorphic or nonmesomorphic stimuli as reflected by photographs of either male body builders and non-body builders or female body builders and non-body builders. Then they were asked to attribute various personality traits and sex-role behaviors to them. Subjects, irrespective of their sex, perceived male and female body builders as possessing more traditionally masculine and less traditionally feminine personality characteristics than male and female non-body builders. Also, male and female body builders were seen as possessing less socially desirable traits than non-body builders. As predicted, female body builders were perceived generally as being more likely to engage in traditionally masculine sex-role behaviors in their dating and marriage relationships than female non-body builders. Contrary to expectation, however, male body builders were not perceived as more likely to engage in higher levels of masculine sex-role behaviors than male non-body builders.     

Female preferences for male physiques

A pair comparison design was used to gather information concerning female preferences for male physiques. By independently varying the size of one of four body areas (the arms, upper trunk, lower trunk, or legs), 19 male silhouettes were constructed. Thurstone scale values indicating relative preferences among these silhouettes were generated for each of 64 female subjects. Correlations were calculated between subject variables, e.g., own physical appearance, personal habits, male and female sex-role attitudes, etc., and the underlying preference factors for male physiques. While the bulk of the significant correlations were low, accounting for approximately 5–10% of the variance, the general trend of the results suggest that women's preferences for male physiques can be summarized in terms of feminine and masculine sex-role stereotypes. Women who are traditionally feminine show a preference for traditionally masculine physiques, i.e., tapering V physiques, while less traditional women express more nonstereotyped preferences. It is also suggested that a female's preferences for male physiques may serve as an initial delimiter in narrowing the field of eligibles in heterosexual pairing.     

Gender role traits among individuals with social anxiety disorder

The present study investigated differences between individuals with and without social anxiety disorder (SAD) in instrumentality and expressiveness, personality traits traditionally linked to the male and female gender roles, respectively. Based on evolutionary and self-discrepancy theories, it was hypothesized that individuals with SAD would score lower on instrumentality and report a discrepancy between their perceived and ideal level of instrumentality compared to control participants. Sixty-four patients with SAD and 31 non-anxious control participants completed a battery of questionnaires, including ratings of their perceived and ideal gender role attributes and current psychosocial distress. Results supported the hypotheses, and provided initial evidence that a discrepancy between perceived and ideal instrumentality may be linked to social anxiety severity, depression and lower quality of life. No differences were detected between groups in expressiveness. The present findings suggest that individuals with SAD perceive themselves to be deficient in instrumentality. They also suggest that increasing instrumentality among individuals with SAD may be beneficial for treatment.     

Gender Role Traits Among Individuals with Social Anxiety Disorder

The present study investigated differences between individuals with and without social anxiety disorder (SAD) in instrumentality and expressiveness, personality traits traditionally linked to the male and female gender roles, respectively. Based on evolutionary and self-discrepancy theories, it was hypothesized that individuals with SAD would score lower on instrumentality and report a discrepancy between their perceived and ideal level of instrumentality compared to control participants. Sixty-four patients with SAD and 31 non-anxious control participants completed a battery of questionnaires, including ratings of their perceived and ideal gender role attributes and current psychosocial distress. Results supported the hypotheses, and provided initial evidence that a discrepancy between perceived and ideal instrumentality may be linked to social anxiety severity, depression and lower quality of life. No differences were detected between groups in expressiveness. The present findings suggest that individuals with SAD perceive themselves to be deficient in instrumentality. They also suggest that increasing instrumentality among individuals with SAD may be beneficial for treatment.     

Perceptions of women related to food choice

Male and female subjects (predominately white) provided impression ratings of body shape, personality traits, and total caloric consumption for a female target based on her preference for a low fat or high fat diet. Results showed that meal type significantly affected impression ratings: the target who preferred low fat foods was viewed more favorably than the one who preferred high fat fare. Compared with male subjects, female subjects perceived the target who preferred a high fat diet to be significantly less conscientious. Males were significantly more accurate than females in their caloric estimations of targets' total daily consumption. The results will be discussed in terms of the social pressure on women to restrict not only their weight to acceptable levels, but their food consumption as well.Portions of this paper were presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Providence, Rhode Island, April 14–17, 1994.The authors wish to thank Justina Bradley, Loraina Ghiraldi, and two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments on an earlier version of this paper. Melissa Van Brocklin's help during the data collection was also greatly appreciated.     

Attitudes Toward Pornography and the Characteristics Attributed to Pornography Actors

Proponents and opponents of pornography often use the assumed characteristics and motivations of female pornography actors to justify their position. The purpose of this study was to examine the relations among attitudes toward pornography, gender, and beliefs about both female and male pornography actors. University students (N = 165) completed measures assessing their attitudes toward pornography and their beliefs about male and female pornography actors. Attitudes toward pornography were significantly related to beliefs about both male and female pornography actors, as was gender. A larger discrepancy between beliefs about female pornography actors and women in general than between male pornography actors and men in general was found. Male participants rated female pornography actors similar to male pornography actors, whereas female participants rated female pornography actors more negatively than male pornography actors. Across participant gender, female pornography actors were believed to come from more dysfunctional families than male pornography actors. In general, male pornography actors were attributed more positive motivations for their work than female pornography actors.     

Body weight and weight perception among African and Caribbean university students: Correlation with depression symptoms

The aim of the study was to investigate the association between body weight, weight perception, and depressive symptoms in African and Caribbean university students. In a cross-sectional survey the total sample included 4 964 undergraduate university students (mean age 21.8, SD = 3.4, age range = 18-30 years) from five African and three Caribbean countries. Data on the students’ actual and perceived body weight, as well as depression symptoms, were collected. In logistic regression, perceived rather than measured overweight predicted depressive symptoms in male students with normal weight. For female students, perceived overweight predicted depression symptoms regardless of actual body weight. Male students who overestimated their body weight were at greater risk of depressive symptoms. Body weight self-perceptions appear to influence experience of mood disorder among African and Caribbean country students.     

Influence of Gun Ownership on Social Inferences About Women and Men1

In the past gun ownership was primarily a male-only phenomenon. There has been, however, an increase among American women in gun purchasing largely for purposes of self-defense. In the first study we examined the consequences of women and men owning handguns, versus not doing so, for social perception. Given that gun ownership is stereotype inconsistent for women but not for men, such a violation of expectancies was expected to have a greater impact on inferences about women than men. Subjects believed that women who owned handguns would possess masculine physical characteristics, although they were not perceived as losing feminine body attributes per se. Women who owned guns tended to be perceived as less likely to occupy female stereotypic social roles, while men who owned a weapon were perceived as more likely to do so. Men who owned a handgun were perceived as less likely to possess socially desirable male stereotypic traits, although women with a handgun gained in this respect. In the second study where a community sample was employed, the main pattern of outcomes was replicated. Affective reactions toward male and female gun owners were similar, and less positive than for persons who do not own guns. Individuals with both positive and negative attitudes toward guns displayed the same pattern of inferences based on gun ownership and target gender. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for social judgment and stereotype use.     

Romantic partners and body image disturbance: Further evidence for the role of perceived—actual disparities

In this study, female and male college dyads (primarily Caucasian) involved in a “romantic relationship” used schematic figures to rate their conceptions of body size on a variety of rating protocols, including actual self, ideal self, ideal opposite gender, perceived partner's ideal opposite gender, perceived partner's rating of self, and rating of partner's body size. Based on the reflected-appraisal literature and previous body image research on perceived—actual disparities in body size ratings, five discrepancy indices were created and related to dispositional levels of body image disturbance, eating dysfunction, and general psychological function (self-esteem, depression). The results clearly indicated gender differences in the particular predictor associated with all measures of disturbance. For females, the discrepancy between the Self rating and the Perceived Partner's Ideal Other Gender rating accounted for almost all of the variance associated with clinical indices of disturbance. For males, the discrepancy between the Self rating and the Actual Partner's Ideal Other Gender rating was the only important predictor to emerge in regression analyses. The findings are interpreted in light of recent research on actual/perceived differences in body size ratings.     

Men’s personality and women’s perception of their dance quality

Recent research shows that women judge men who show variability in their body movements as good dancers. Here we report data on women’s perception of dance quality in 48 men, aged 18-42 years, and relate them to men’s self-reported personality traits. Male participants completed a standardised personality inventory (the NEO-FFI) and then danced to a basic rhythm while their body movements were tracked with optical 3D motion-capture technology. Dance movements were applied to a featureless virtual humanoid character and judged on their dance quality by 53 women, aged 17-57 years, who viewed 15 s of the rendered video clips of each male dancer. Conscientiousness and social agreeableness was correlated positively and significantly with women’s perception of men’s dance quality. Extraversion showed a positive correlation and neuroticism and openness were associated negatively with women’s perception of men’s dance quality, though these correlations failed to reach significance. We suggest that male dance movements may convey aspects of their personality, though possible consequences in terms of female mate preferences and selection remain to be explored.     

Homophobia, perceived fathering, and male intimate relationships

This study examined the relationships among homophobia, perceived fathering, and male intimacy with significant male and female best friends. A questionnaire, administered to 130 adult heterosexual males, included McDonald and Game's homophobia measure (ATHMS), eight intimacy scales, and four scales measuring subjects' recollections of their fathers' parenting styles. Correlations of ATHMS and individual intimacy scales revealed a significant relationship between homophobia and intimacy in male-male relationships. Homophobia was related to male-female intimacy on those measures which reflected subjects' perception of their female partner's sensitivity to them. Although homophobia was related to perception of the father as enforcing sex roles, none of the perceived fathering variables were directly related to intimacy with males. The findings provide evidence for a direct relationship between male homophobia and lack of intimacy in friendships between men.     

Sex differences in attributions for the performance of women of a masculine task

Sex differences in the attributions of observers for the successful or unsuccessful behavior of a female actor performing a masculine task were studied. For the perceived causes of the outcome it was found that internal attributions were emphasized more for success than for failure. In addition, female observers attributed both types of outcome more to effort than did males. The nature of the outcome and the sex of the observer also affected the perceived personality traits of the actor. More positive traits were attributed to the successful than to the unsuccessful actor. The female observers attributed more instrumental traits to the actor than did the male observers. The results were discussed in terms of Jones and Davis's theory (1965) of correspondent inferences and the fact that competence was not viewed as being incompatible with femininity.     

Body images of patients with anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and female control subjects: a comparison with male ideals of female attractiveness

Body images of female patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa were assessed against females without eating disorders and compared with male ideals of female attractiveness. A computer program was applied to examine body images of 62 patients with anorexia nervosa, 45 patients with bulimia nervosa, and 40 female and 39 male control subjects. Body size overestimation was most distinct in the two patient groups. Self-ideal discrepancy was highest in bulimia nervosa. Estimation of the society's ideal female body in all three female groups did not differ from men's perception of the most attractive female body. Congruence of ideals of female attractiveness in patients, female, and male control subjects and described differences between patients and female controls support the theory that body image disturbance is a problem of processing self-referential information regarding body image rather than a problem of processing body image related information per se.     

Body-size estimations in children six through fourteen: a longitudinal study.

Estimates of perceived and ideal body size were collected in 216 boys and girls ages 6 through 14 years. Video methodology was used to adjust the width of a life-size frontal image of the children. Longitudinal data were collected annually for three years, beginning at ages 6, 9, and 12. Three psychological methods were used, including the method of adjustment, staircase method, and adaptive probit estimation technique which permitted separate measures of the children's point of subjective equality and just noticeable difference values. The point of subjective equality is the body size which is subjectively equal to the child's perception of self. The just noticeable difference is the amount of change in body size necessary to detect the difference 50% of the time. Acceptable size boundaries were also measured, using the method of adjustment. Over-all, children were accurate in estimating their body width, with average overestimation of less than 2%. Overestimation decreased within each age group during the three years of the study. There were no differences between ages or sexes. Both point of subjective equality and just noticeable difference values decreased significantly during the three years of the study. The latter values significantly decreased as children became older. Body dissatisfaction (the discrepancy between perceived and ideal size) remained low for boys in all age groups. Girls' body dissatisfaction significantly increased across ages, beginning at age 9. Test-retest consistency of both perceived and ideal size judgments at intervals of one and two years were low. Acceptable boundaries in body width were similar between sexes and across age cohorts.     

Parent‐offspring conflict in Japan and parental influence across six cultures

Previous research has demonstrated that parents and children often have conflicting mate preferences. The present research was conducted among 443 Japanese university students. Using an existing scale designed to uncover parent‐offspring conflict over mate choice, the results revealed that children perceived having a potential partner with traits connoting poor genetic quality as being more unacceptable to themselves, and having a potential partner with traits connoting low parental investment and cooperation with the ingroup as being more unacceptable to their parent. A number of sex differences emerged. The highest potential for parent‐offspring conflict existed between female offspring and their father, and female offspring also rated traits connoting low social status as being more unacceptable to their parents, particularly to the father.     

个体和群体歧视知觉对流动儿童主观幸福感的影响

采用整班联系、自愿参加的方式,通过匿名方式对北京市1552名流动儿童施测个体和群体歧视知觉问卷、积极/消极情感量表、生活满意度量表、内群体认同测验与群体地位感测验,探讨个体和群体歧视知觉对流动儿童主观幸福感的影响及内群体认同感和群体地位感在其中的中介作用。结果表明：（1）个体和群体歧视知觉与流动儿童的主观幸福感、内群体情感认同及群体地位感之间存在显著性相关,与内群体认知认同之间相关不显著。（2）个体歧视知觉对流动儿童的主观幸福感存在直接显著的负向预测作用,并通过降低流动儿童的群体地位感,进而间接地负向影响流动儿童的主观幸福感;（3）群体歧视知觉对流动儿童的主观幸福感也存在直接显著的消极影响,并同时借助于群体地位感的中介作用、以及内群体情感认同和群体地位感的双重中介作用间接地降低流动儿童的主观幸福感。