Repeated Auditory Stimulation of the Startle Response in the Guinea Pig

Simulated and behavioral personal space measures and the Sensation Seeking Scale were administered to 20 males and 20 females. In the simulated measures Ss positioned male and female top profiles relative to a top profile representing themselves at each of nine equally spaced angles. For the behavioral measure Ss were approached by a male or female at each of the nine angles.

The female “swinger” had greater simulated personal space. Males who liked new and interesting experiences had greater side and diagonal simulated personal space, and females high on the same scale had a closer behavioral personal space toward males except at the sides. Males and females responded similarly to males and females approaching from various directions. However, there was no relation between front and side simulated personal space for males. Size of personal space relative to females tended to be highly correlated with size of personal space toward males. However, for male Ss there was little relation between front personal space toward males and females. For male Ss simulated personal space and behavioral personal space were highly correlated. For female Ss the two measures were almost completely unrelated.     

The role of cuticular pheromones in courtship conditioning of Drosophila males

Courtship conditioning is an associative learning paradigm in Drosophila melanogaster, wherein male courtship behavior is modified by experience with unreceptive, previously mated females. While the training experience with mated females involves multiple sensory and behavioral interactions, we hypothesized that female cuticular hydrocarbons function as a specific chemosensory conditioned stimulus in this learning paradigm. The effects of training with mated females were determined in courtship tests with either wild-type virgin females as courtship targets, or with target flies of different genotypes that express distinct cuticular hydrocarbon (CH) profiles. Results of tests with female targets that lacked the normal CH profile, and with male targets that expressed typically female CH profiles, indicated that components of this CH profile are both necessary and sufficient cues to elicit the effects of conditioning. Results with additional targets indicated that the female-specific 7,11-dienes, which induce naive males to court, are not essential components of the conditioned stimulus. Rather, the learned response was significantly correlated with the levels of 9-pentacosene (9-P), a compound found in both males and females of many Drosophila strains and species. Adding 9-P to target flies showed that it stimulates courting males to attempt to copulate, and confirmed its role as a component of the conditioned stimulus by demonstrating dose-dependent increases in the expression of the learned response. Thus, 9-P can contribute significantly to the conditioned suppression of male courtship toward targets that express this pheromone.     

Olfactory discrimination of estrous condition by the male golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus)

After repeated exposure to receptive and nonreceptive females, male golden hamsters were tested for olfactory preferences in a four-choice olfactometer. Males discriminated between the odor of anesthetized females in different stages of their estrous cycle when the airstreams carrying the stimulus odors were diluted. Previous failures to demonstrate such an ability were probably due to ceiling effects resulting from laboratory testing. Males preferred the odor of females on the day before receptivity (a day coincident with maximal scent marking by the female) and least preferred the odor of females on diestrus-1 (the day on which females attacked and chased males during pretesting encounters). Detection and quick response to an impending estrus would be especially important for males of a solitary and promiscuous species in which there is a first male mating advantage.     

Opposite-sex interpersonal attraction as a function of the sex roles of the perceiver and the perceived

Androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated high school males and females were asked to rate opposite-sex androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated stimulus persons on both platonic and romantic liking measures. The sex-role attributes of the perceiver did not importantly mediate preferences. However, the sex-role personality characteristics of the stimulus person had significant consequences for attraction. Androgynous stimulus persons were found to be the most attractive on both platonic and romantic measures of liking. Females especially preferred androgynous males, whereas males tended to prefer androgynous females for friendship and feminine females for romance. Undifferentiated stimulus persons were consistently the least popular. Discussion of the possible dynamics underlying the obtained pattern of results is offered.The authors would like to thank Mary Harackiewicz, Bella DePaulo, Shelley Taylor, and especially John Kihlstrom for their help with this research.     

Self-disclosure: Intimate and nonintimate disclosures to parents and best friends as a function of bem sex-role category

Thirty-two androgynous, traditional, and undifferentiated males and females (N/it=192) completed a 6-item self-disclosure questionnaire containing 30 intimate and 30 nonintimate items. The targets were father, mother, and best male and female friends. Analyses of both intimate and nonintimate items indicated that amount of self-disclosure was related to sex role and not gender. Typical male-female differences in self-disclosure were not found because (a) androgynous males disclosed at significantly higher levels than traditional and undifferentiated males to most targets; (b) undifferentiated males and females disclosed significantly less than their androgynous and traditional counterparts. Intimate self-disclosure by androgynous males to father, and nonintimate disclosure by androgynous females to father, were particularly high. Both findings suggest a unique role for fathers in the development of androgynous persons. Androgynous females reported higher disclosure to best male friend than to mother. This is counter to the traditional female pattern and is interpreted as representing a greater degree of distancing from mother and openness to peers.The order of the authors' names was randomly determined. Both contributed equally.     

Body type preferences and body characteristics associated with attractive and unattractive bodies by african Americans and Anglo Americans

Body type preferences, body characteristics associated with body attractiveness, and personal characteristics associated with unattractive body types (e.g., obese bodies) were examined in African American and Anglo American female and male respondents. African American males preferred larger body types for females, and associated more favorable and fewer unfavorable characteristics with obese females than did Anglo American males. Females of both races preferred a slightly thin body type for males, although African American females associated fewer unfavorable characteristics with obese males than did Anglo American females. Difference between the races in body characteristics associated with attractiveness suggest race-specific prototypes of body attractiveness that correspond to physical differences between the races. Race-specific standards of attractiveness within cultures are discussed.     

Representation of the gender of human faces by infants: a preference for female

Six experiments based on visual preference procedures were conducted to examine gender categorization of female versus male faces by infants aged 3 to 4 months. In experiment 1, infants familiarized with male faces preferred a female face over a novel male face, but infants familiarized with female faces divided their attention between a male face and a novel female face. Experiment 2 demonstrated that these asymmetrical categorization results were likely due to a spontaneous preference for females. Experiments 3 and 4 showed that the preference for females was based on processing of the internal facial features in their upright orientation, and not the result of external hair cues or higher-contrast internal facial features. While experiments 1 through 4 were conducted with infants reared with female primary caregivers, experiment 5 provided evidence that infants reared with male primary caregivers tend to show a spontaneous preference for males. Experiment 6 showed that infants reared with female primary caregivers displayed recognition memory for individual females, but not males. These results suggest that representation of information about human faces by young infants may be influenced by the gender of the primary caregiver.     

Likability,Sex-role Congruence of Interest,and Competence: It All Depends on How You Ask1

Subjects were shown one of four videotaped versions of a male or female stimulus person (SP) being interviewed, the SP' s being Competent or Incompetent and Masculine or Feminine in their interests. All S s were asked to rate the SPs' likability on an objective questionnaire, those in one condition (Standard) immediately after viewing the tape, and in another (Projective) after first having responded to a series of open-ended, TAT-like questions about the SP. In the Standard condition, the major results were two highly significant effects-Competent SP s were liked better than Incompetent ones, and the Masculine Competent SP s more than their feminine counterparts. Several changes occurred in the Projective condition. Only profeminist women continued to prefer the Masculine Competent female SP to the Feminine Competent, the other group reversing their ratings. In response to the male SP s, profeminist males in the Projective condition preferred both Masculine SP s to the Feminine ones and, in comparison with other groups, exhibited a reduced competency effect.     

Visual preferences for sex and status in female rhesus macaques

Most primates are both highly visual and highly social. These qualities predict that visual cues to social variables, such as identity, sex, social status, and reproductive quality, would be intrinsically valuable and systematically attract attention. Supporting this idea, thirsty male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) will forego fluid reward to view images of the faces of high-ranking males and the sexual skin of females. Whether female rhesus macaques, who experience dramatically different social pressures and reproductive costs than male macaques, also systematically and spontaneously value visual cues to social information remains untested experimentally. We probed the preferences of female rhesus macaques, given the opportunity to display an image from a known class of social stimuli or touch a second target to display a blank screen. We found that females preferred faces of high-status males and also images of the perinea of both males and females, but were not motivated to display images of subordinate males or control stimuli. These findings endorse the view that both male and female rhesus macaques—and presumably other highly social primates—seek information about other individuals in a way that matches the adaptive value of that information for guiding social behavior.     

Effects of selective breeding for high and low aggressiveness and of fighting experience on odor discrimination in mice

The present study was designed to determine whether male and female mice, selectively bred for high (TA) and low (TNA) aggressiveness, react in different ways when exposed to odors from males of the same strains. The effects of losing or winning fights on odor preferences in the TA males were also studied. The low aggressive TNA males were found to avoid areas soiled by the highly aggressive TA males. The TA males, on the other hand, were most interested in the areas soiled by other highly aggressive TA males. Along with decreasing aggressiveness, losing fights radically changed the odor preferences of the TA males, the soiled bedding from winner TA males now having a strong aversive effect. TNA females preferred the odors of TA males, while the TA females preferred the odors of TNA males. The genotype of the receiver of odor cues is important for the preference choices; this effect can, however, be changed through experience.     

Sex stereotypes and implicit personality theory. II. A trait-inference approach to the assessment of sex stereotypes

Two experiments were conducted to assess sex stereotypes using the trait-inference method originated by Asch (1946). In both, subjects were asked to make inferences about the personality of a male or a female stimulus target who was introduced by a brief list of traits. In Experiment 1 this trait list described the target as either good or bad in intellectual activities and as either warm or cold while in Experiment 2 the introductory list comprised traits which are relatively neutral in terms of evaluation. Subjects rated the stimulus persons on adjective scales selected to reflect dimensions of personality perception reported in previous research. In both studies, male targets were rated significantly higher than females in terms of the Intellectual Desirability dimension. In addition, female targets tended to be rated higher on Communion in Experiment 1 (p<.06), and lower than males on Potency in Experiment 2 (p<.07). No differences as a function of stimulus sex were obtained for Social Desirability, Activity, and Agency. The results suggest that the dimension of implicit personality theory most closely associated with perceived sex differences is a combination of Intellectual Desirability and Potency. The male end of this dimension is relatively well defined by traits which convey a hard-headed, rational approach to problem solving. The female end is much less elaborated and consists of traits reflecting soft-heartedness.     

Structural vs. Expressive form in Music

A sample of 128 Ss differing in flying experience were compared in their travel preferences and in their drawings of airplanes. Significant sex differences were found, with males drawing more “realistic” airplanes; and females, larger airplanes. Those males who had flown and who indicated motion in their drawings tended to report some experience of motion sickness. Those females who had flown and who indicated motion in their drawings tended to report fear of high places.     

Social sanction and threat explanations of gender effects on direct and indirect aggression

The present study examined two explanations for gender differences in expression of direct and indirect aggression. The social sanction model suggests that aggressor and target gender effects may be accounted for in terms of social sanctions against behaving aggressively; indirect aggression is the likely outcome of inhibitions against expression of direct aggression. The threat argument suggests that high levels of direct aggression in male‐male dyads as well as apparent inhibitions against harming females might be accounted for by the fact that males are more threatening targets than are females. Research participants completed a questionnaire measure of direct and indirect aggression twice, once with reference to their behavior toward a same‐gender target and once with reference to their behavior toward an other‐gender target. Although most direct aggression was reported by male aggressors toward male targets, gender of target did not relate to indirect aggression. Males reported approximately equal levels of indirect and direct aggression. Although females reported using more indirect than direct aggression, they did not differ from males in their reports of the frequency of use of indirect aggression. These results provided some support for both models of gender effects on human aggression and suggest the appropriateness of a relatively complex model of gender effects on aggression. Aggr. Behav. 25:425–434, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Interaction of sex-related psychological characteristics and psychoneuroendocrine stress responses

Sex-related psychological characteristics of male and female engineering students were examined and correlated with measures of sympathetic-adrenal medullary hormones. Self-ratings showed that both males and females perceived themselves as equally high in characteristics generally viewed as masculine and feminine. Retrospective reports of play activities in childhood reflected the traditional sex-role patterns, whereas ratings of adult interests, hobbies, and job preferences showed that the two gender groups had moved in a more androgynous direction, with the increase in females' cross-sex interests being greater than that of males. The intellectual performance profiles showed the well-documented sex difference, with males excelling in visuospatial abilities and females in verabl abilities and perceptual speed. Correlations between measures of intellectual performance and catecholamine excretion were mainly positive in the male group and negative in the female group, which is consistent with findings from previous studies.     

Nonverbal cues to sex-role attitudes

This study explored the relationship between self-reported attitudes toward “masculinity-femininity” and nonverbal behavior as judged by peers. Subjects (Ss) were preselected using an Mf questionnaire into: high-“feminine” males (N = 16) and females (N = 15) and low-feminine males (N = 16) and females (N = 15). The 62 Ss were videotaped in a 5-min standardized interview. Peer-age judges (Js) then viewed the videotapes without sound and asked to check which of the 170 adjectives describe Ss. Some Js were asked to rate average college male and female. A large number of adjectives discriminated the sexes (91 out of 170). Women were more often seen as warm, affable, oversocialized, emotional, and unstable. Men were seen as forceful, dominant, and detached. Sixty-two adjectives discriminated high- and low-feminine women. Feminine women were seen as warm, affable, oversocialized, and submissive, while low-feminine women were seen as dominant. High-feminine men were described as impulsive, dominant, and socially uneasy, while low-feminine men were seen as oversocialized and conventional.     

Relationships among self‐construal,gender, social dominance orientation,and interpersonal distance

The present research focuses on the cognitive embodiment of physical proximity, through interpersonal distance’s relationship with self‐construal, gender, and social dominance orientation. Previous work showed that more independent self‐construal was associated with higher distancing preferences of participants, and that females tend to have higher interdependent self‐construal that lead them to prefer less interpersonal distance. We expected to replicate these findings. However, due to the relationship between power and interpersonal distance, it was argued that gender and perceptions regarding the social hierarchy would also play a role in predicting interpersonal distance. More specifically, it was predicted that while females who accept social hierarchies between males and females would prefer more distance when interacting with males, males would not differ in their preference for social distance. One hundred participants (67 female) completed the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale, Independent and Interdependent Self‐Construal Scales and the Social Dominance Orientation Scale. Interdependent self‐construal was negatively correlated with overall preferred interpersonal distance. Moreover, females high on social dominance orientation preferred larger interpersonal distance from male adult strangers than from female adult strangers. The findings provide further support for the embodiment of self‐construal by showing that psychological closeness and heteronomy are related to physical closeness. The findings also highlight the importance of investigating communal sharing and authority ranking dimensions simultaneously when focusing on interpersonal distance as well as differentiating females’ interpersonal sensitivity due to low power with their high affiliation.     

Assessment of sexual preference using a choice reaction time task

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of a choice reaction time task, during which slides of sexually explicit and neutral stimuli were used as an interference task, to differentiate between groups of individuals on the basis of their sexual preference. Twenty subjects, in each of the four groups (heterosexual males, heterosexual females, homosexual males, and homosexual females), participated in this study. Sexual orientation was determined by self-report. Subjects were given a choice reaction time with interference task, followed by a recall incidental learning task. A significant higher-order interaction was found among gender, orientation, and stimulus type for all four groups. This interaction indicated a longer reaction time to slides depicting preferred sexual partners than to nonpreferred sexual partners or neutral scenes. These results indicate that sexual arousal does interfere with cognitive processing. A main effect for gender was found for the incidental learning task, with males having the fewest errors.     

Social preference of female gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) as influenced by coat color of males

Female gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) of three distinct coat colors (agouti, black, and sandy or pink-eyed dilution) were tested in a Y-maze whose arms led to compartments containing unfamiliar male gerbils of varying coat colors. The stimulus animals were separated from the females by a Plexiglas door. The trials lasted for 2 min and each female was exposed to the following four combinations: two males of the same coloring as the female; one male of the same color and another of a different color from the female; both males of different color from the female. The number of crossings to the left and right arms was relayed by photocells to an IBM PC computer. The results indicate that agouti females preferred visiting the arm occupied by agouti males while those of the other coat colors showed no preference for the "wild-type" males. Instead, sandy and black female gerbils preferred to be in proximity with those of non-wild types.     

STIMULUS SELECTION AND TRACKING DURING URINATION: AUTOSHAPING DIRECTED BEHAVIOR WITH TOILET TARGETS1

A simple procedure is described for investigating stimuli selected as targets during urination in the commode. Ten normal males preferred a floating target that could be tracked to a series of stationary targets. This technique was used to bring misdirected urinations in a severely retarded male under rapid stimulus control of a floating target in the commode. The float stimulus was also evaluated with nine institutionalized, moderately retarded males and results indicated rapid autoshaping of directed urination without the use of verbal instructions or conventional toilet training. The technique can be applied in training children to control misdirected urinations in institutions for the retarded, in psychiatric wards with regressed populations, and in certain male school dormitories.