Eye blink detection for different driver states in conditionally automated driving and manual driving using EOG and a driver camera

In this article, we examine the performance of different eye blink detection algorithms under various constraints. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the performance of an electrooculogram- and camera-based blink detection process in both manually and conditionally automated driving phases. A further comparison between alert and drowsy drivers was performed in order to evaluate the impact of drowsiness on the performance of blink detection algorithms in both driving modes. Data snippets from 14 monotonous manually driven sessions (mean 2 h 46 min) and 16 monotonous conditionally automated driven sessions (mean 2 h 45 min) were used. In addition to comparing two data-sampling frequencies for the electrooculogram measures (50 vs. 25 Hz) and four different signal-processing algorithms for the camera videos, we compared the blink detection performance of 24 reference groups. The analysis of the videos was based on very detailed definitions of eyelid closure events. The correct detection rates for the alert and manual driving phases (maximum 94%) decreased significantly in the drowsy (minus 2% or more) and conditionally automated (minus 9% or more) phases. Blinking behavior is therefore significantly impacted by drowsiness as well as by automated driving, resulting in less accurate blink detection.     

Functions of Identity in the Context of Being a Student: Development and Validation of the Functions of Student Identity Scale

A promising approach to the understanding of identity is the identity functions framework. However, its developmental specificities associated with adolescence remain unexplored. The aim of this study was to develop and test a new measure of the functions of identity as they relate to being a student. Consistent with the theoretical framework, an exploratory analysis with a subsample of high school students revealed five identity functions. A confirmatory analysis with a second subsample found that a higher-order model incorporating these five subscales demonstrated good fit to the data. A bifactor model and statistical indices indicated that it is appropriate to interpret a total student identity score using this instrument. The five subscales, and total scale, demonstrated good convergent validity with a measure of academic behavioral change. These preliminary results suggest that this new instrument presents good psychometric properties and that it is a suitable assessment instrument for the measurement of students’ processes and outcomes. For example, its associations with academic performance stages of changes suggest that this instrument will be useful for identifying students at risk for poor academic trajectories.     

A computer-compatible multichannel event counting and digital recording system

An inexpensive multichannel event counting digital recording system has been designed for compatibility with automated data analysis equipment. For as many as 16 channels, events are simultaneously summed over preselected repetitive time intervals and recorded. Each data entry is marked with the time of day and a code identifying each channel’s data. The data is formated to be computer compatible and is logged on inexpensive readily available digital magnetic tape cassettes.     

A comparison of the diagnostic accuracy of the AD8 and BCAT-SF in identifying dementia and mild cognitive impairment in long-term care residents

We compared the accuracy of the Brief Cognitive Assessment Tool—Short Form (BCAT-SF) and AD8 in identifying mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia among long-term care residents. Psychometric analyses of 357 long-term care residents (n = 228, nursing home; n = 129, assisted living) in Maryland referred for neuropsychological evaluation evidenced robust internal consistency reliability and construct validity for the BCAT-SF. Furthermore, hierarchical logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic curve analyses demonstrated superior predictive validity for the BCAT-SF in identifying MCI and dementia relative to the AD8. In contrast, previously reported psychometric properties or cut scores for the AD8 could not be cross-validated in this long-term care sample. Based on these findings, the BCAT-SF appears to be a more reliable and valid screening instrument than the AD8 for rapidly identifying MCI and dementia in long-term care residents.     

The Welch Emotional Connection Screen: Adapting observational methods to pediatric primary care via resident training

The Welch Emotional Connection Screen (WECS) is a novel instrument that is a brief, practicable, evidenced-based observational screening tool for assessing relationship health between parent and child. The WECS requires observing 2−3 min of face-to-face interactions between parent and child, without toys, prompts, paradigms or technology. Here, we describe a translational project from the coding lab to the primary care provider via a residency training program conducted with 50 residents during a 30-day developmental and behavioral pediatrics medical resident education rotation. The aims of this study were to evaluate the efficacy of WECS pediatric resident training: 1) to improve residents' accuracy in recognizing the dyadic behaviors of emotional connection (EC) via WECS training; and 2) to improve residents' attitudes, self-efficacy, and perceived professional norms (ASPPN) pertaining to Early Relational Health in Pediatrics. Results indicate that using a rapid prototyping approach to training, residents improved in their identification of dyads showing low to midrange levels of emotional connection. As well, resident attitudes about the importance of relationship health in pediatrics and their self-efficacy in identifying emotional connection improved significantly after this brief resident training.     

Examining classification criteria: a comparison of three cut score methods

This study compared 3 different methods of creating cut scores for a screening instrument, T scores, receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis, and the Rasch rating scale method (RSM), for use with the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BESS) Teacher Rating Scale for Children and Adolescents (Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007). Using the BESS norm data set, we compared the methods across 7 classification indices. Additional information about accuracy was used with a subset of children who had been given a prior diagnosis for selected disorders. The results showed that the methods were generally in concordance, with similarities identified across methods. RSM and ROC analysis methods performed similarly, with both methods identifying the same optimal cut-point. The method based on T scores appeared to be more conservative, identifying a lower cut score as optimal.     

Operant conditioning permits voluntary,noninvasive measurement of blood pressure in conscious,unrestrained baboons (Papio cynocephalus)

This report describes a computerized apparatus and procedure for completely automated noninvasive measurement of systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial blood pressure in conscious, unrestrained nonhuman primates. We used a specially constructed, cage-mounted oscillometric blood pressure instrument and operant reward conditioning methods to train adult baboons(Papio cynocephalus) to submit voluntarily to frequent self-initiated determinations of their blood pressures in the absence of a human operator/observer. Details concerning the operant training procedure and illustrative blood pressure data are presented. The accuracy of the method was evaluated by comparing the noninvasive blood pressure readings with simultaneously taken direct measurements obtained by means of chronically indwelling arterial catheters.     

Situation Awareness and Workload in Aviation

A pilot faces special challenges imposed by the need to control a multivariate lagged system in a heterogeneous multitask environment. The time lags between critical variables require prediction in an uncertain world. The interrelated concepts of situation awareness and workload are central to aviation psychology. Three components of situation awareness are spatial awareness, system awareness, and task awareness. Each of these components has real–world implications, spatial awareness for instrument displays, system awareness for keeping the operator informed about actions that have been taken by automated systems, and task awareness for attention and task management. Task management is directly related to mental workload, as the competing demands of tasks for attention exceed the operator's limited resources.     

The impact of auditory continual feedback on take-overs in Level 3 automated vehicles

ObjectiveTo implement auditory continual feedback into the interface design of a Level 3 automated vehicle and to test whether gaze behavior and reaction times of drivers improved in take-over situations.BackgroundWhen required to assume manual control in take-over situations, drivers of Level 3 automated vehicles are less likely than conventional drivers to spot potential hazards, and their reaction time is longer. Therefore, it is crucial that the interface of Level 3 automated vehicles will be designed to improve drivers’ performance in take-over situations.MethodIn two experiments, participants drove a simulated route in a Level 3 automated vehicle for 35 min with one imminent take-over event. Participants’ gaze behavior and performance in an imminent take-over event were monitored under one of three auditory interface designs: (1) Continual feedback. A system that provides verbal driving-related feedback; (2) Persistent feedback. A system that provides verbal driving-related feedback and a persistent beep; and (3) Chatter feedback. A system that provides verbal non-driving-related feedback. Also, there was a control group without feedback.ResultsUnder all three auditory feedback designs, the number of drivers' on-road glances increased compared to no feedback, but none of the designs shortened reaction time to the imminent event.ConclusionIncreasing the number of on-road glances during automated driving does not necessarily improve drivers’ attention to the road and their reaction times during take-overs.ApplicationPossible implications for the effectiveness of auditory continual feedback should be considered when designing interfaces for Level 3 automated vehicles.     

Personality diagnosis with the Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure (SWAP): integrating clinical and statistical measurement and prediction

This article describes the Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure (SWAP), a personality assessment instrument intended for use by clinically experienced interviewers, designed to maximize both psychometric precision and clinical relevance. The article focuses on the latest edition of the instrument, the SWAP-II; its use in 2 recently completed large-sample projects; and the ways in which data from these projects are being used to revise and refine concepts of personality pathology and taxonomy. The article first details the development of the SWAP and its psychometric rationale. It then examines the use of SWAP data for purposes of (a) improving diagnostic criteria within the framework of the existing Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders taxonomy, (b) developing a new classification of personality pathology based on empirically identified diagnostic groupings, and (c) identifying trait dimensions relevant to understanding personality syndromes and disorders. Finally, the article discusses future research directions and challenges.     

To share or not to share: A theoretically guided investigation of factors predicting intentions to use fully automated shared passenger shuttles

This study applied the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to assess individuals’ intentions to use fully automated shared passenger shuttles when they become publicly available. In addition, perceived trust was assessed to examine the extent to which this variable could account for additional variance in intentions above the TPB constructs of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (PBC). Further, and also guided by the TPB, the study explored the differences in behavioural, normative, and control beliefs between individuals who reported high intentions to use automated passenger shuttles in the future (high intenders) and individuals who reported low intentions to use fully automated shared passenger shuttles in the future (low intenders). Participants (N = 438; 64% female) aged between 17 and 84 years (Mage = 35.42 years) were asked to complete an online questionnaire which took approximately 15 min. The findings revealed that attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC were significant positive predictors of intentions to use fully automated shared passenger shuttles when they become publicly available. When perceived trust was added to the hierarchical regression, this variable was shown to account for additional significant variance in intentions above the TPB constructs and was shown to be a significant positive predictor of intentions. Further, the results revealed significant differences in beliefs held by high and low intenders. Specifically, high intenders held significantly more positive beliefs towards fully automated shared passenger shuttles than low intenders. In turn, low intenders held significantly more negative beliefs towards these vehicles than high intenders. Overall, these findings provide support for the utility of the TPB in examining individuals’ intentions to use fully automated shared passenger shuttles when they become publicly available.     

On the Consequences of Frequent Applicants in Adverse Impact Analyses: A demonstration study

Electronic résumés, online applications, and automated personnel systems have reduced the effort required for a candidate to apply for employment opportunities like selection and promotion. The nature of these systems may affect analyses of adverse impact. For example, candidates that can easily apply to many positions multiple times could strongly influence analyses of adverse impact under particular circumstances. This study demonstrates some potential consequences of including frequent applicants in adverse impact analyses. Using workforce simulation methodology, we illustrate some conditions where a lesser qualified frequent applicant substantially influences the statistical significance of adverse impact detection. In some cases, the adverse impact against a subgroup may be accounted for by a single frequent applicant; in other cases, statistically significant adverse impact may be disguised by a single frequent applicant. We also consider methods for identifying frequent applicants and present options for handling these cases in analyses.     

Eye movements predict driver reaction time to takeover request in automated driving: A real-vehicle study

For automated driving at SAE level 3 or lower, driver performance in responding to takeover requests (TORs) is decisive in providing system safety. A driver state monitoring system that can predict a driver’s performance in a TOR event will facilitate a safer control transition from vehicle to driver. This experimental study investigated whether driver eye-movement measured before a TOR can predict driving performance in a subsequent TOR event. We recruited participants (N = 36) to obtain realistic results in a real-vehicle study. In the experiment, drivers rode in an automated vehicle on a test track for about 32 min, and a critical TOR event occurred at the end of the drive. Eye movements were measured by a camera-based driver monitoring system, and five measures were extracted from the last 2-min epoch prior to the TOR event. The correlations between each eye-movement measure and driver reaction time were examined, and a multiple regression model was built using a stepwise procedure. The results showed that longer reaction time could be significantly predicted by a smaller number of large saccades, a greater number of medium saccades, and lower saccadic velocity. The implications of these relationships are consistent with previous studies. The present real-vehicle study can provide insights to the automotive industry in the search for a safer and more flexible interface between the automated vehicle and the driver.     

Pictorially displayed family patterns as an assessment instrument

The performance of a pictorial assessment instrument and suggestions for clinical application are described. The stylized family illustrations include the following patterns: normal family, detouring, two-generational enmeshment, three-generational enmeshment, parental child, undermined mother and chaotic family. Ninety-eight individuals, five years or older, in twenty families selected depictions most like their own families. Siblings of patients alone or siblings combined with fathers chose the same pattern type as the family therapists 75 and 64% of the time, respectively. These concordances were significant statistically. Clinical uses include identifying promising therapeutic resources and facilitating transitions to systems and relationship issues.     

The Manager as Coach: Cross-Cultural Adaptation of an Instrument Assessing Managers’ Coaching Skills

While coaching has been conceived as a new managerial strategy and effective leadership initiative in organizations, the concept of ‘manager as coach’ has gained considerably popularity. In this context, the interest for reliable and valid tools to assess managers’ coaching skills increased among practitioners and organizations. This paper provides additional analyses of an instrument assessing managers’ coaching skills in business settings and examines a theoretical model in identifying manager coaching skills from two informational sources, namely self-report and other-report. This work does not only continue the development of the base of empirical research on managerial coaching, but also offers some guidelines for further testing and development of valid and reliable instruments for the assessment and understanding of managers’ coaching skills.     

Personal Styles Inventory

The Personal Styles Inventory (PSI), a self-report instrument designed to measure enduring, commonplace personality characteristics in each of three domains—ways of expressing emotions, activities, and thinking—is reviewed. The development and structure of the inventory are described. Counseling applications discussed include the following: enhancing self-awareness, identifying sources of stress, counseling about careers, understanding interpersonal relations, providing consultation, and individualizing interventions. PSI research relative to personality test correlates, learning styles, behavior disorders, counseling implications, and alcohol abuse and dependence is presented.     

Evolving from Clinical to Positive Psychology: Understanding and Measuring Patients’ Strengths: A Pilot Study

Empirical evidence suggests that concentrating on patients’ internal and external strengths serves a preventative function against psychopathology. However, standardized tools assessing strengths of patients suffering from mental disorders are rare and often limited to research purposes. As current practice in mental health rarely stresses the importance of patients’ personal resources, the feasibility of strengths-based assessments has rarely been validated within such a population. We designed a new instrument, the Strengths Q-sort Self-Assessment Scale, aimed at identifying patients’ strengths profile. This new scale measures 30 strengths classified in three sections: (i) personal characteristics, (ii) hobbies/passions, (iii) environmental/social strengths. In order to be adjusted for patients with cognitive or language impairments, this instrument is based on a Q-Sort method with figurative items. The aim of this study was to test the feasibility and acceptability of this scale in a sample of 21 psychiatric patients. Preliminary results showed that this tool can easily be administered and is well appreciated by patients. Feedback from clinicians highlight the benefits of identifying the strengths profiles in order to help defining realistic shared clinical objectives based on patients’ strengths.     

An illustration of multilevel factor analysis

The factor analysis of repeated measures psychiatric data presents interesting challenges for researchers in terms of identifying the latent structure of an assessment instrument. Specifically, repeated measures contain both within and between individual sources of variance. Although a number of techniques exist for separating out these 2 sources of variance, all are problematic. Recently, researchers have proposed that exploratory multilevel factor analysis (MFA) be used to appropriately analyze the latent structure of repeated measures data. The chief objective of this report is to provide a didactic step-by-step guide on how MFA may be applied to psychiatric data. In the discussion, we describe difficulties associated with MFA and consider challenges in factor analyzing life event appraisals in psychiatric samples.     

A structured pictorial questionnaire to assess DSM-III-R-based diagnoses in children (6–11 years): Development,validity, and reliability

This paper presents a structured pictorial instrument, the Dominic questionnaire, to assess mental disorders in 6- to 11-year-old children. Ninety-nine drawings represent situations corresponding to DSM-III-R based ADHD, CD, ODD, MDD, SAD, OAD, and SPh. However, cognitive limitation of 6- to 11-year-old children do not allow for time-related measurement. The instrument takes 15–20 min to administer. Reliability and validity of the Dominic questionnaire were studied in Parent DISC-2 positive and negative outpatient and general population samples and against clinical judgement. The pictorial approach provides acceptable test-retest reliability and the instrument makes standardized assessment possible for children as young as 6 years of age.This investigation was supported by the National Health Research and Development Program (Ottawa) grant #6605-2780-42. The authors wish to thank L. Houde and S. Lepine for their collaboration and J. J. Breton, P. Cohen, K. Minde, K. Munir, and D. Shaffer for their suggestions and editorial comments.     

Assessing the effect of long-automated driving operation,repeated take-over requests,and driver’s characteristics on commercial motor vehicle drivers’ driving behavior and reaction time in highly automated vehicles

Automated Commercial Motor Vehicles (CMVs) have the potential to reduce the occurrence of crashes, enhance traffic flow, and reduce the stress of driving to a larger extent. Since fully automated driving (SAE Level 5) is not yet available, automated driving systems cannot perform all driving tasks under all road conditions. Drivers need to regain the vehicle’s control when the system reaches its maximum operational capabilities. This transition from automated to manual is referred to as Take-Over Request (TOR). Evaluating driver’s performance after TORs and assessing effective parameters have gained much attention in recent years. However, few studies have addressed CMV drivers’ driving behavior after TOR and the effect of long-automated driving and repeated TORs. This paper aims to address this gap and gain behavioral insights into CMV drivers’ driving behavior after TOR and assess the effect of the duration of automated operation before TOR, repeated TORs, and driver characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education, and driving history). To accomplish this, we designed a 40-minutes experiment on a driving simulator and assessed the responses of certified CMV drivers to TORs. Drivers’ reaction time and driving behavior indices (e.g., acceleration, velocity, and headway) are compared to continuous manual driving to measure driving behavior differences. Results showed that CMV drivers’ driving behavior changes significantly after the transition to manual regardless of the number of TORs and the duration of automated driving. Findings suggest that 30 min of automated operation intensifies the effect of TOR on driving behaviors. In addition, repeated TOR improves reaction times to TOR and reduces drivers' maximum and minimum speed after TORs. Driver’s age and driving history showed significant effects on reaction time and some driving behavior indices. The findings of this paper provide valuable information to automotive companies and transportation planners on the nature of driver behavior changes due to the carryover effects of manual driving right after automated driving episodes in highly automated vehicles.