Effector localization and transfer of reactive inhibition

An experimental test was made of Hull's (1943) notions that reactive inhibition is effector-specific and that it has primary negative motivational properties. Four groups of 20 subjects (10 males and 10 females in each) executed two segments of continuous right-hand practice on a mirror-tracking task. The two segments were separated either by 0 min rest, 5 min rest, 5 min continuous right-hand practice on rotary pursuit, or 5 min continuous left-hand practice on rotary pursuit. Effects of interpolated conditions were measured in terms of main-task reminiscence arid initial post-treatment performance. When interpolated practice was conducted with the right hand, reminiscence and post-treatment performance were significantly depressed relative to the rest effect, but not when interpolated practice was conducted with the left hand. Thus, Hull's views were supported, while competing views, such as the task specificity concept of lr and the consolidation theory of reminiscence, were impugned.     

Psychomotor reminiscence as a function of sex and length of rest period

Sex differences in psychomotor reminiscence were examined as a function of the length of the rest period. Five groups of Caucasian subjects, each group consisting of 12 males and 12 females, practiced continuously for 3 min on a mirror-tracking task, then rested for 0,1, 2, 4, or 8 min before resuming continuous practice. Reminiscence in both sexes increased as negatively accelerated functions of the amount of rest. The asymptotic level of reminiscence was higher for females than for males, but the quadratic slopes of the two functions were essentially alike. Analyses of prerest trial gains supported a conclusion that females reminisced more because they accumulated more reactive inhibition prior to rest.     

Reliability and Specificity of Individual Differences In Reminiscence

In investigating Eysenck’s (1965) suggestion of the specificity of reminiscence, 50 high school boys were tested on 2 gross motorcoordination tasks—one involving tracking and the other balance. In the practice schedule, which was identical for both tasks, all Ss were given 20 50-sec. trials with a 10-sec. intertrial rest. A 5-min. interpolated rest was given after every fourth trial. The reliability of individual differences in reminiscence for both tasks was found to be extremely low. While Eysenck’s hypothesis was not necessarily weakened, doubt was cast upon the specificity of reminiscence in the usual context of the word.     

Incubated reminiscence effects

Reminiscence, the recall of material that was not successfully recalled on a previous attempt, was examined in three experiments as a function of the interest (incubation) interval. Incubation intervals inserted between successive recall tests resulted in increased reminiscence, but the effect was seen primarily in the first retested minute. Neither the duration of the initial test (1-4 min), nor the incubation activity (maze problems vs. rest) affected this incubated reminiscence effect. The results support models in which recall tests cause output interference, but incubation intervals reduce it.     

The Effect of Rest Following Massed Practice of Continuous and Discrete Motor Tasks

Theories of the rest-related phenomena of reminiscence and warm-up decrement regard them as independent, being due to different factors. In this study it was found that rest following massed practice of a continuous task increased performance (reminiscence) and rest following massed practice of a discrete task lowered performance (warm-up decrement). The near-zero correlation found between the phenomena indicates that they are indeed independent and task-specific. Implications of the findings for the prediction of the effect of rest, and the fact that much motor learning and performance is task-specific, is discussed.     

The effect of rest following massed practice of continuous and discrete motor tasks

Theories of the rest-related phenomena of reminiscence and warm-up decrement regard them as independent, being due to different factors. In this study it was found that rest following massed practice of a continuous task increased performance (reminiscence) and rest following massed practice of a discrete task lowered performance (warm-up decrement). The near-zero correlation found between the phenomena indicates that they are indeed independent and task-specific. Implications of the findings for the prediction of the effect of rest, and the fact that much motor learning and performance is task-specific, is discussed.     

A Note on State Individual Differences in Accuracy of Response Imagery: Aftereffects and Reminiscence

In two sessions, separated by 7 days, subjects imagined themselves performing a tracking task under a massed practice schedule. After conditions of interpolated rest and no-rest, which were counterbalanced across sessions, subjects actually performed the tracking task. During imagery practice, subjects verbally reported the temporal component of the task. The temporal accuracy of verbal reports varied widely across subjects, but not within subjects. Furthermore, a performance gain was demonstrated as a function of interpolated rest versus no-rest (reminiscence effect). Finally, the accuracy of verbal reports predicted imagery aftereffects, but not reminiscence effects.     

Involuntary Rest Pauses (Irps) in Schizophrenics and Normals

Normal and schizophrenic Ss (N=24 each) performed a simple tapping task. The prediction that more involuntary rest pauses would be produced by schizophrenics than by normals was borne out. A discussion is given of the relation of these results to the interpretation of schizophrenia in terms of “arousal”.     

Individual and sex differences in reminiscence

Inverted alphabet printing, rotary pursuit, and mirror tracking tasks were administered to 84 subjects in order to ascertain (a) reproducibility of reminiscence scores within and between tasks and (b)sex differences in reminiscence. With prerest performance levels held constant by second-order partial correlation procedures, reproducibility of individual reminiscence differences within tasks was significant but quite low, while predictability of reminiscence from one task to another was negligible. The sexes reminisced essentially alike on inverted alphabet printing, but females reminisced more than males on the other tasks, presumably because they were relatively more depressed by massed practice on these tasks. Thus, individual and sex differences were essentially task specific. Implications of results for reminiscence theories and for the credibility of alleged relationships between reminiscence and other organismic variables were discussed.     

The effects of session length on demand functions generated using FR schedules

In comparing open and closed economies, researchers often arrange shorter sessions under the former condition than under the latter. Several studies indicate that session length per se can affect performance and there are some data that indicate that this variable can influence demand functions. To provide further data, the present study exposed domestic hens to series of increasing fixed-ratio schedules with the length of the open-economy sessions varied over 10, 40, 60, and 120 min. Session time affected the total-session response rates and pause lengths. The shortest session gave the greatest response rates and shortest pauses and the longest gave the lowest response rates and longest pauses. The total-session demand functions also changed with session length: The shortest session gave steeper initial slopes (i.e., the functions were more elastic at small ratios) and smaller rates of change of elasticity than the longest session. Response rates, pauses, and demand functions were, however, similar for equivalent periods of responding taken from within sessions of different overall lengths (e.g., total-session data for 10-min sessions and the data for the first 10 min of 120-min sessions). These findings suggest that differences in session length can confound the results of studies comparing open and closed economies when those economies are arranged in sessions that differ substantially in length, hence data for equivalent-length periods of responding, rather than total-session data, should be of primary interest under these conditions.     

Some Physiological Concomitants of Pursuit Rotor Performance and Reminiscence

A frustration theory of pursuit rotor performance and reminiscence has previously been presented (Costello, 1967; Costello & Discipio, 1967). The theory was reformulated in terms of arousal theory and the following hypotheses were tested: (1) an inverted “U” relationship exists between level of arousal and performance level; (2) reminiscence results when S during the rest period moves closer to his optimum level of arousal; (3) massed practice produces a higher level of arousal than spaced practice; (4) experimental conditions producing a high drive state will also increase his arousal level. Findings in line with these hypotheses were found for EMG measures but not for GSR and pulse rate. In view of what appears to be the task-specific nature of the physiological results it was concluded that there was no particular advantage in reformulating the frustration theory in terms of arousal theory.     

Examining the life story account of the reminiscence bump: Why we remember more from young adulthood

The reminiscence bump is a robust finding demonstrated mostly with the cue-word method in Western cultures. The first aim of the study was to replicate the reminiscence bump using a life history timeline method and to extend reminiscence bump research to a Turkish sample. The second aim was to empirically examine the recently proposed life story account (Glück & Bluck, 2007) for the reminiscence bump. The sample consisted of 40 women and 32 men aged 52 to 66 years. Participants’ lives were divided into 5-year intervals and they verbally reported as many memories as possible in a standard timeframe from each interval (in random order) and provided ratings of several memory characteristics. As expected, the lifespan distribution of the resulting 6373 memories demonstrated a reminiscence bump. In support of the life story account, bump memories were found to be more novel, more important for identity development, more distinct, and more likely to involve developmental transitions than memories from other age periods. Findings are discussed in terms of the life story account, which synthesises lifespan developmental theory and life story theory.     

Reminiscence and hypermnesia in children's eyewitness memory

Three experiments examined reminiscence and hypermnesia in 5- and 6-year-olds' memory for an event across repeated interviews that occurred either immediately afterward (Experiment 1) or after a 6-month delay (Experiments 2 and 3). Reminiscence (recall of new information) was reliably obtained in all of the experiments, although the numbers of new items recalled were fewer after a delay than when the interviews occurred immediately afterward. Hypermnesia (increasing total recall over repeated recall attempts) was obtained only in Experiment 1 when interviews occurred immediately and 24 h after the event.     

Reminiscence as Continuity: Comparison of Young and Older Adults

This study empirically investigates key propositions of a continuity theory approach to reminiscence. According to continuity theory, individuals seek familiarity in the face of uncertainty or impending change, which can accompany the aging process. The reminiscence behavior of young (n = 43) and older (n = 47) adults was compared to ascertain whether significant differences would emerge between the two populations concerning how often they reminisce and their use of reminiscence during transitional periods. Also of interest were differences in potential links between the content of reminiscence episodes and postreminiscence affect. Young adults in this sample reminisced significantly more frequently than older adults and were more likely to reminisce during times of change than were older adults. In addition, there was a direct relationship between the content of reminiscence episodes and postreminiscence affect, with older adults reporting greater emotional satisfaction after recalling the past than did younger adults. Findings lend support to continuity theory: Reminiscence occurs throughout the life span and should not be conceptualized as occurring most frequently in old age.     

SenseCam reminiscence and action recall in memory-unimpaired people

Case studies of memory-impaired individuals consistently show that reminiscing with SenseCam images enhances event recall. This exploratory study examined whether a similar benefit would occur for the consolidation of memories in memory-unimpaired people. We tested delayed recall for atypical actions observed on a lengthy walk. Participants used SenseCam, a diary, or no external memory aid while walking, followed by reminiscence with SenseCam images, diary entries, or no aid, either alone (self-reminiscence) or with the experimenter (social reminiscence). One week later, when tested without SenseCam images or diary entries, prior social reminiscence produced greater recall than self-reminiscence, but there were no differences between memory aid conditions for action free recall or action order recall. When methodological variables were controlled, there was no recall advantage for SenseCam reminiscence with memory-unimpaired participants. The case studies and present study differ in multiple ways, making direct comparisons problematic. SenseCam is a valuable aid to the memory impaired, but its mnemonic value for non-clinical populations remains to be determined.     

Changing the response unit from a single peck to a fixed number of pecks in fixed-interval schedules

Each of three pigeons was studied first under a standard fixed-interval schedule. With the fixed interval held constant, the schedule was changed to a second-order schedule in which the response unit was the behavior on a small fixed-ratio schedule (first a fixed-ratio 10 and then a fixed-ratio 20 schedule). That is, every completion of the fixed-ratio schedule produced a 0.7-sec darkening of the key and reset the response count to zero for the next ratio. The first fixed-ratio completed after the fixed-interval schedule elapsed produced the 0.7-sec blackout followed immediately by food. These manipulations were carried out under two different fixed-interval durations for each bird ranging from 3 min to 12 min. The standard fixed-interval schedules produced the typical pause after reinforcement followed by responding at a moderate rate until the next reinforcement. The second-order schedules also engendered a pause after reinforcement, but responding occurred in bursts separated by brief pauses after each blackout. For a particular fixed-interval duration, post-reinforcement pauses increased slightly as the number of pecks in the response unit increased despite large differences in the rate and pattern of key pecking. Post-reinforcement pause increased with the fixed-interval duration under all response units. These data confirm that the allocation of time between pausing and responding is relatively independent of the rate and topography of responding after the pause.     

What types of reminiscence are associated with successful aging?

To resolve the controversy regarding the adaptive benefits of reminiscence, the study was conducted to investigate what types of reminiscence are associated with successful aging. On the basis of prior research and content analysis, 6 types of reminiscence were identified: integrative, instrumental, transmissive, narrative, escapist, and obsessive. Successful aging was operationally defined as higher than average ratings in mental and physical health and adjustment as determined by an interviewer and a panel of gerontological professionals. Reminiscence data were gathered from 88 men and women judged to be aging successfully and 83 men and women judged to be aging unsuccessfully. All subjects were between 65 and 95 years of age, with approximately half living in the community and half in institutions. As predicted, successful agers showed significantly more integrative and instrumental reminiscence but less obsessive reminiscence than their unsuccessful counterparts. Community dwellers also showed more instrumental and integrative reminiscence than institutionalized seniors showed. Thus, only certain types of reminiscence are beneficial.     

The effects of reinforcer magnitude in the preceding and upcoming ratios on between‐ratio pausing in multiple,mixed, and single fixed‐ratio schedules

Hens responded under multiple fixed‐ratio schedules with equal response requirements and either a 1‐s or a 6‐s reinforcer. Upcoming reinforcer size was indicated by key color. Components were presented in a quasirandom series so that all four component transitions occurred. Postreinforcement pauses were affected by the upcoming and preceding reinforcer size, with longer pauses after large reinforcers followed by small reinforcers than when followed by large ones, and longer pauses after small reinforcers that were followed by small reinforcers rather than large ones. Pauses increased with fixed‐ratio size and the effects of reinforcer size were larger the larger the ratio. When reinforcer size was not signaled—mixed fixed‐ratio schedules—pauses were shorter after small than after large reinforcers. Signalling the upcoming reinforcer attenuated the effect of the previous reinforcer size on pause duration when small was followed by small and when either small or large by large, but enhanced the effect when large was followed by small. There was no effect of reinforcer size on pause duration when single fixed‐ratio schedules were arranged. The effects of reinforcer size on pauses depends on the size and range of the fixed ratios as well as the exact procedures used in the study.