Gambling habits of athletes and nonathletes classified as disordered gamblers

The objective of the present study was to determine the forms of gambling that were the most prevalent in those having problems with their gambling. High-risk individuals who were experiencing difficulties with their gambling were examined. Specifically, the gambling behaviors of current athletes, former athletes, and nonathletes were investigated. Only members of these 3 groups with elevated scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) were tested. Specifically, only those classified as disordered gamblers (SOGS score > or = 3) were recruited. Among these individuals with high SOGS scores, former athletes were more likely to participate in skill-based forms of gambling such as sports gambling and poker card playing, whereas nonathletes were more likely to partake in gambling games that were based predominately on chance factors. Also, former athletes were more likely to wager on the sport they had once played. Findings suggest that a competitive spirit may lead athletes to involvement in skill-based forms of gambling. While other explanations were considered, preliminary indicators support this view.     

The natural history of gambling and drinking problems among casino employees

From an eligible population of 9,943 casino employees, 6,067 volunteered to participate in this study. Of this sample, 1,176 provided data at 3 observation points approximately 12 months apart. Using the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; H. R. Lesieur & S. B. Blume, 1987) and the CAGE (J. A. Ewing, 1984) questionnaire, the authors prospectively examined the prevalence and patterns of alcohol and gambling problems among those employees. Among the casino employees with gambling and drinking problems, a segment displayed the capacity to diminish those problems even when the difficulties had reached disordered levels. The authors also examined the comorbidity of gambling and drinking as well as the relationships among changes in SOGS scores and CAGE scores and changes in demographic and biological variables. The women were more likely to decrease their problem-drinking scores, but not their gambling scores, when compared with the men. In addition, 2 key variables (i.e., disabling depression and dissatisfaction with one's personal life) emerged as predictors of transitions to healthier levels of disordered gambling. The authors cautiously suggest, in light of the results taken together, that more fluctuation is associated with gambling and drinking problems than previously thought and that the conventional wisdom about disordered gambling as "always progressive" needs reconsideration.     

Gender Role Orientation of Athletes and Nonathletes in a Patriarchal Society: A Study in Turkey

The purpose of this study was to compare the gender role orientation and gender role classification of female and male athletes to those of their nonathlete counterparts. A total of 463 athletes and 378 nonathletes completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The findings indicated that athletes score higher on the masculinity and femininity subscales than do nonathletes. Men had higher scores on masculinity than did women, whereas women had higher scores on femininity than did men. In addition, both men and women athletes were mostly classified in the androgynous category. These findings are discussed in relation to the competitive sport environment and Turkish society.     

Self-esteem of female athletes and nonathletes relative to sex role type and sport type

The purpose of the present research was to investigate the relationship of the self-esteem of female athletes and nonathletes to sex role type and sport type. The athletic group was comprised of 75 female collegiate athletes from eight sports and the nonathletic group consisted of a random sample of 75 female nonathletes. An assessment of self-esteem and sex role type was completed through administering to all subjects the short form of the (PRF) ANDRO Scale of Masculinity and Femininity, and the Interpersonal Disposition Inventory (IDI). On the basis of the results of the IDI, the subjects were categorized into four sex role types: androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated. Based upon previous research, it was predicted that (1) athletes would exhibit higher self-esteem scores than nonathletes, (2) the self-esteem of androgynous individuals would be higher than other sex role types, (3) the self-esteem of feminine or undifferentiated individuals would be lower than other sex role types, (4) the self-esteem of female athletes in higher femininity status sports would be greater than those in lower femininity status sports, and (5) there would be a greater proportion of androgynous athletes and feminine nonathletes. The following significant results were found: nonathletes in the feminine sex role type were lower in self-esteem than all other groups; and there was a greater proportion of androgynous athletes and feminine nonathletes than expected by chance. There were no differences in self-esteem of athletes in higher femininity status vs lower femininity status sports. These findings were discussed relative to past research, and the potential impact of sport on the psychosocial development or selection of certain sex role types.     

Differences in hemispheric functional asymmetry between athletes and nonathletes: evidence from a Unilateral Tactile Matching Task

To study the hemispheric specialization for spatial information processing in athletes and nonathletes a Unilateral Tactile Matching Task was administered. Athletes showed more marked hemispheric specialization than nonathletes. The right hemisphere of the former, in fact, indicated a more pronounced accuracy than those of the latter in perceiving rod orientations.     

Multidimensional self-concepts,masculinity, and femininity as a function of women's involvement in athletics

Measures of multidimensional self-concepts, masculinity (M), and femininity (F) were completed by high-school women athletes and nonathletes, and by young-adult women athletes and nonathletes. Women athletes in both age groups had substantially higher scores in M and in self-concept of physical ability, but did not differ substantially from nonathletes in F and in other areas of self-concept. Women athletes in both groups also judged their self-concept of physical ability to be more important to them than did nonathletes, but the two groups did not differ in the perceived importance of other areas of self-concept. These findings support the androgyny contention that MF should not be considered a bipolar construct and suggest that women can be more M without being less F. The specificity of the relation between athletic involvement and the multiple dimensions of self-concept also provide further support for the construct validity of the self-concept dimensions.The authors would like to acknowledge Lindsay McCaughan for his assistance in the design of the study, the staff and students at Pymble Ladies College, and the group of female powerlifters.     

Disordered Gambling and Its Treatment

Pathological gambling is an increasing concern with the growth of legalized gambling opportunities, and clinicians who provide general psychotherapy, as well as those specializing in some disorders, are likely to encounter patients with gambling problems. This review article describes the diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling and screening methods for identifying individuals with gambling problems. Problem and pathological gambling are more likely to occur in certain populations, such as among individuals with substance use, mood and anxiety disorders, and medical problems. However, few pathological gamblers seek specialized gambling treatment. This paper reviews different forms of treatments that have been applied to gamblers, along with evidence of their efficacy. Clinical guidelines for identifying and treating gambling problems are outlined as well.     

The relationship between athletic participation and high school students' leadership ability

This study examined the relationship between adolescents' participation in athletics and their leadership skills. In a sample of 60 suburban high school students, athletes demonstrated significantly greater leadership ability than did nonathletes (according to their mean scores on the Leadership Ability Evaluation). Female athletes showed greater leadership ability than did male athletes, although the difference between their scores was not statistically significant. The implications of these findings for school athletic programs are discussed.     

Provoked and unprovoked aggressiveness in athletes

In a factorial design, athletic involvement (no varsity sport, varsity noncontact sport, varsity contact sport) was varied with induced disposition (unprovoked, provoked). Under conditions of no provocation, no significant differences in aggressiveness were observed between nonathletes and athletes, nor between noncontact- and contact-sport athletes. In contrast, under conditions of provocation, nonathletes displayed more aggressiveness than athletes. Non-contact-sport athletes behaved significantly less aggressively than both nonathletes and contact-sport athletes. Contact-sport athletes failed to behave significantly less aggressively than nonathletes, however. The findings were explained as the result of an acquired superior ability in athletes to cope with provocation under competitive circumstances, which is partially counteracted in contact-sport athletes by their aggressiveness habits and disinhibition training.     

Field dependence as a factor in sports with preponderance of open or closed skills

Three groups of 120 male and female athletes, who were aged 13 to 22 yr. from Junior and Senior High School and College varsity sports having a preponderance of open skills or of closed skills or who were nonathletes of like age, were tested on Oltman's portable rod-and-frame apparatus to assess field dependence. Analysis indicated that individuals playing in sports with a preponderance of open skills were more field-dependent than those playing in sports with a preponderance of closed skills. Varsity participants were more field-independent than nonparticipants.     

Socialization influences of collegiate female athletes: A tale of two decades

Over the past decade, sport participation opportunities for females have increased dramatically. The purposes of this study were to compare perceptions of encouragement and support from socializing agents for: (a) female collegiate volleyball players competing during the 1979 and 1989 seasons, and (b) female collegiate athletes and female and male nonathletes. Female athletes (n= 345), female nonathletes (n= 128), and male nonathletes (n= 88) completed a questionnaire to assess significant others' influence on sport involvement during childhood, adolescence, and college years. Results indicated that interest and encouragement by parents, older siblings, and friends significantly increased for female athletes over the past 10 years during one or more developmental period. Discriminant analyses revealed that female athletes perceived stronger influences from mother, siblings, friends, and coaches than did male and female nonathletes. These results demonstrate that female athletes received greater social support than their peers a decade earlier, and these influences were significantly different than male and female nonathletes. This study was supported by a grant awarded to the first author by the Center for the Study of Women in Society, University of Oregon, Eugene.     

Perceptions of current and ideal body shape of athletes and nonathletes

This study was done to examine the relationship between sex and perception of body image among athletes and nonathletes. A total of 211 men and women athletes and nonathletes completed a questionnaire which asked them to identify from a nine-figure body-silhouette scale their current image and the image that they thought was most ideal. t tests showed no significant differences for men based upon athletic participation and that both athletes and nonathletes were satisfied with their body image. However, when comparing current image and ideal image, significant differences were found for women athletes and nonathletes. These data support previous research documenting women's dissatisfaction with their body images and show athletic participation is not associated with this perception.     

A comparison of maladaptive behaviors of athletes and nonathletes.

A comparison of maladaptive behavior tendencies of men and women who were athletes and nonathletes was undertaken. Participating students (N = 200) were divided into four groups: male athletes, male nonathletes, female athletes, and female nonathletes. Maladaptive behavior tendencies were determined from responses on C. MacAndrew's (1965) Alcoholism Scale. The statistical analysis used was an independent groups 2 x 2 analysis of variance to determine significant main effects and interaction effects. The mean maladaptive behavior score (MBS) for athletes (M = 21.87) was significantly higher (p < .05) than the MBS for nonathletes (M = 20.24). The MBS for the men (M = 21.68) was significantly higher (p < .05) than the MBS for the women (M = 20.43). No significant interaction (p > .05) between gender and athletic status was found. Male athletes are more likely than the other 3 groups to have maladaptive behavior tendencies. Research directed toward greater understanding and the development of preventive and coping techniques for this population is needed.     

Correlates of Orgasm Adequacy in a Group of 556 Wives

In the present study, the authors examined 53 female athletes drawn from 4 different sports and 55 female nonathletes. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: speed focused and technique focused. The nonathlete control group consisted of college women who had not participated in any varsity sports at the university level. Participants were measured on scales of body dissatisfaction, preoccupation with weight, and self-perceptions of body type and weight. Analyses revealed that (a) speed-focused athletes and technique-focused athletes did not differ significantly in their concerns about weight and body image, and (b) nonathletes expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies than both of the athlete groups. Results are discussed with regard to associations between female sports participation and body image.     

The relationship between types of female athletic participation and female body type

In the present study, the authors examined 53 female athletes drawn from 4 different sports and 55 female nonathletes. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: speed focused and technique focused. The nonathlete control group consisted of college women who had not participated in any varsity sports at the university level. Participants were measured on scales of body dissatisfaction, preoccupation with weight, and self-perceptions of body type and weight. Analyses revealed that (a) speed-focused athletes and technique-focused athletes did not differ significantly in their concerns about weight and body image, and (b) nonathletes expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies than both of the athlete groups. Results are discussed with regard to associations between female sports participation and body image.     

Gender role conflict,gender-typed characteristics,self-concepts,and sport socialization in female athletes and nonathletes

Gender role conflict, masculinity, femininity, physical appearance self-concept, athletic competence self-concept, body image self-concept, and athletic participation by parents among female athletes and nonathletes were examined in 76 female athletes and 69 female nonathletes (N= 145). Similar to previous research, results indicated no significant differences in the gender role conflict of female athletes and nonathletes. Results also indicated that, as predicted, female athletes exhibited significantly more positive athletic competence self-concept, body image self-concept, and athletic participation by parents than female nonathletes. Both participants' body image self-concept and parental sport participation were significantly and inversely related to their amount of gender role conflict. Implications for differences in the social personality and gender role development of female athletes and nonathletes are discussed. Special thanks to Francis Street for her helpful assistance. Thanks also to Pete Toye, Ph.D., Academic Advisor, the University of Wyoming Athletic Department and to coaches Mark Miller, Linda Conger, Mike English, Karoline Eide, Kyle Linton, Chad Lavin, Brenda Erikson, and Paul Barret for their cooperation and assistance.     

Tobacco use among high school athletes and nonatieletes: results of the 1997 youth risk behavior survey

In the United States today, the use of tobacco has become an entrenched part of teenage culture. The present study used the 1997 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), which collected data from a nationally representative sample of 16,262 students in public and private high schools, to compare the tobacco use patterns of athletes and nonathletes. The independent variable, athletic participation, differentiated between moderately involved (1 or 2 teams) and highly involved (3 or more teams) athletes. Frequency of cigarette and cigar smoking and smokeless tobacco use served as the operational measure of tobacco use. Age, race/ethnicity, parental education, and residence were controlled. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios for female and male athletes and nonathletes for each of the tobacco use variables. It was found that both male and female athletes were less likely to have ever smoked regularly, the effect being stronger for more highly involved athletes of both genders. Cigar smoking was unrelated to athlete status. Both female and male athletes were more likely to have used smokeless tobacco, the effect being stronger for more highly involved athletes of both genders. The findings are discussed in terms of access to health information, performance considerations, social status factors, the salience of an athletic identity, and the influence of the athletic subculture on its members.