The state-trait anxiety inventory, trait version: does it really measure anxiety?

To clarify what is actually measured by the trait version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970), we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis of various models and evaluated convergent and discriminant validity. The best fit was obtained with both a bifactor model, comprising 2 specific factors plus a general factor, and a 1-construct, 2-method model. The total score and the 2 method subscales of the STAI trait version were more strongly correlated with depression than with anxiety. In the bifactor model with 2 specific factors, the depression subscale showed stronger correlations with measures of depression than with measures of anxiety. The correlation of the hypothetical anxiety subscale with measures of depression was equivalent to or higher than its correlation with measures of anxiety. These results suggest that the questionnaire does not strictly evaluate anxiety but, rather, negative affect.     

ANXIETY SENSITIVITY AND TRAIT-SYMPTOM MEASURES OF ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION

The Icelandic version of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index was investigated in two studies of college students. A principal components analysis of ASI scores from both studies (N=718) yielded three components similar to what has been found previously: Psychological Concerns, Physical Concerns and Social Concerns. In the first study the relationship between the ASI and trait anxiety was investigated. It was analysed at the level of the total scales but also at the level of subscales of both instruments. Two subscales of the STAI, measuring respectively Anxiety-trait and Depression-trait, were used as well as the Psychological Concerns and Physical Concerns subscales of the ASI. In a second study the relationships between ASI and its subscales and two symptom measures of anxiety and depression were addressed. ASI was in both studies more strongly related to the anxiety than the depression scales. Also, in both studies the Physical Concerns subscale of the ASI was more strongly related to anxiety than to depression, whereas the Psychological Concerns subscale was equally related to anxiety and depression. Taken together the studies support the notion of different relationships between different aspects of anxiety sensitivity, and anxiety and depression as traits, cognitive symptoms and mood related symptoms.     

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales: Factor structure and differential item functioning across women and men

This study examined the factor structure, and differential item functioning of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) across sex. The DASS was completed by 201 women and 165 men from the general community. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated support for the original 3-factor oblique model (factors for depression, anxiety and stress). There was however more support for a bifactor model, with four orthogonal factors: a general factor on which all the depression, anxiety and stress items load, and specific independent factors for depression, anxiety and stress items. None of the DASS items showed DIF. The practical, theoretical, research and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Applying Bifactor Statistical Indices in the Evaluation of Psychological Measures

The purpose of this study was to apply a set of rarely reported psychometric indices that, nevertheless, are important to consider when evaluating psychological measures. All can be derived from a standardized loading matrix in a confirmatory bifactor model: omega reliability coefficients, factor determinacy, construct replicability, explained common variance, and percentage of uncontaminated correlations. We calculated these indices and extended the findings of 50 recent bifactor model estimation studies published in psychopathology, personality, and assessment journals. These bifactor derived indices (most not presented in the articles) provided a clearer and more complete picture of the psychometric properties of the assessment instruments. We reached 2 firm conclusions. First, although all measures had been tagged “multidimensional,” unit-weighted total scores overwhelmingly reflected variance due to a single latent variable. Second, unit-weighted subscale scores often have ambiguous interpretations because their variance mostly reflects the general, not the specific, trait. Finally, we review the implications of our evaluations and consider the limits of inferences drawn from a bifactor modeling approach.     

Psychometric properties of the state-trait anxiety inventory for Asian/Pacific-islander adolescents

Anxiety disorders are said to be universal across all cultures and recent reviews have found relatively high prevalence rates across different countries. However, the experience and interpretation of anxiety are strongly influenced by cultural factors. Demonstrating cross-cultural equivalence of measures of anxiety is essential to assure that comparisons between cultures will result in meaningful interpretations. Despite the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory being the most researched of anxiety measures from a cross-cultural basis, there is a lack of empirical studies on the psychometric properties of the STAI with adolescent Asian/Pacific Islanders. The present study examined the STAI using a large sample of ethnically diverse high school students in Hawaii. In general, a four-factor model (State-Anxiety Absent, State-Anxiety Present, Trait-Anxiety Absent, and Trait-Anxiety Present) provided the best fit based on a series of confirmatory factor analyses. Indicators of internal consistency supported the reliability of the factors and subscales, and the inter-factor correlations reflected positively on the concurrent validity of the different STAI factor and subscale measures. This study suggested cautious use and interpretation of one particular item (Trait Item 14 = I try to avoid facing a crisis or difficulty ), and cautious application of the STAI to Filipino adolescents (particularly Filipino males). Domains for further research are discussed.     

Anxiety reactivity and anxiety perseveration represent dissociable dimensions of anxiety vulnerability: A replication and extension

Trait anxiety is a unitary construct reflecting individual differences in the tendency to experience anxious symptomatology, typically measured with questionnaires such as the Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI‐T). Recent research by Rudaizky, Page, and MacLeod has found evidence that two different dimensions of trait anxiety account for independent variance in trait anxiety scores. These dimensions are anxiety reactivity (AR), reflecting the probability of experiencing an anxious reaction, and anxiety perseveration (AP), reflecting the persistence of anxious symptoms once elicited. There are two key issues addressed in this study: first, the replicability of Rudaizky et al.'s findings and second, the ability of the measures of AR and AP developed by Rudaizky et al. to predict independent variance in STAI‐T scores after statistically controlling for variance shared with a measure of depression. Regression analysis determined that AR and AP do account for independent variance in STAI‐T trait anxiety scores even after statistically controlling for depression. The implications of these findings for the understanding of anxiety vulnerability are discussed.     

Psychometric properties of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA): comparison to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

The State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA; M. J. Ree, C. MacLeod, D. French, & V. Locke, 2000) was designed to assess cognitive and somatic symptoms of anxiety as they pertain to one's mood in the moment (state) and in general (trait). This study extended the previous psychometric findings to a clinical sample and validated the STICSA against a well-published measure of anxiety, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; C. D. Spielberger, 1983). Patients (N=567) at an anxiety disorders clinic were administered a battery of questionnaires. The results of confirmatory factor analyses (Bentler-Bonnett nonnormed fit index, comparative fit index, and Bollen fit index>.90; root-mean-square error of approximation<.05); convergent and discriminant validity analyses; and group comparisons supported the reliability and validity of the STICSA as a measure of state and trait cognitive and somatic anxiety. In addition, compared with the STAI (anxiety: rs/=.64), the STICSA was more strongly correlated with another measure of anxiety (rs>/=.67) and was less strongly correlated with a measure of depression (rs相似文献   

Development of a Short Version of the Dutch Version of the Spielberger STAI Trait Anxiety Scale in Women Suspected of Breast Cancer and Breast Cancer Survivors

The objective of the current study was to develop a short form of the Dutch version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) Trait scale and to provide initial validation data in a sample of breast cancer patients and survivors. This short trait anxiety (A-Trait) scale was designed to reduce time and effort required of severely ill or handicapped patients involved in extensive assessment procedures. Another goal was to assess A-Trait with minimal overlap with content that reflects Quality of Life (QoL) and fatigue. Three groups of women either completed the original Trait scale (Groups 1 and 2) or the 10-item trait version (Group 3). In Group 1, exploratory factor analysis with the Scree test, Velicer’s MAP criteria and parallel analysis as tests for factor retention, indicated a 10-item Trait version reflecting two factors: Anxiety Present and Anxiety Absent. In the other groups, confirmatory factor analysis showed that the two-factor short form provided the best fit. In all three groups Trait Anxiety was highly related to Neuroticism. The correlation between Overall QoL and General Health and the Anxiety Present short scale was lower than the correlation between Overall QoL and General Health and the full form (Z = 2.20, p = .03). With this short A-Trait scale it becomes possible to study the relationship between dispositional anxiety and clinically important outcome variables without inflating estimates of these relations through psychometric contamination.     

Anxiety as a context for understanding associations between hypochondriasis, obsessive-compulsive, and panic attack symptoms

In the context of the integrative model of anxiety and depression, we examined whether the essential problem of hypochondriasis is one of anxiety. When analyzed, data from a large nonclinical sample corresponded to the integrative model's characterization of anxiety as composed of both broad, shared and specific, unique symptom factors. The unique hypochondriasis, obsessive-compulsive, and panic attack symptom factors all had correlational patterns expected of anxiety with the shared, broad factors of negative emotionality and positive emotionality. A confirmatory factor analysis showed a higher-order, bifactor model was the best fit to our data; the shared and the unique hypochondriasis and anxiety symptom factors both contributed substantial variance. This study provides refinements to an empirically based taxonomy and clarifies what hypochondriasis is and, importantly, what it is not.     

Differentiating anxious and depressive self-statements in youth: factor structure of the Negative Affect Self-Statement Questionnaire among youth referred to an anxiety disorders clinic

Conducted a factor analysis on the items from the Negative Affect Self-Statement Questionnaire (NASSQ; Ronan, Kendall, & Rowe, 1994). This analysis yielded 4 factors (Depressive Self-Statements, Anxiety/Somatic Self-Statements, Negative Affect Self-Statements, and Positive Affect Self-Statements) broadly consistent with both the content-specificity hypothesis (Beck & Clark, 1988) and L. A. Clark and Watson's (1991b) tripartite model of anxiety and depression. The association between children's self-talk and measures of trait anxiety and depression was also examined. Self-statements with content theoretically specific to depression were the best predictors of self-reported depressive symptoms, but the results were less clear for trait anxiety. Overall, these results provide evidence for the discriminability of anxious and depressive self-talk in youth and for the utility of the NASSQ as a cognitive assessment instrument.     

Rorschach correlates of state and trait anxiety in college students

This study was done to determine whether Elizur's anxiety scoring (AL) for Rorschach content was correlated to scores on Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The definition of anxiety presented by Elizur implies that his technique measures anxiety as a long-term, relatively stable personality characteristic rather than a transitory emotional state, but no research has shown whether AL was correlated with state and/or trait anxiety as defined and measured by Spielberger. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was administered in small groups to 40 college students with a repeated measure of STAI State-anxiety and the Rorschach given individually following a delay of at least five days. Analysis indicated that the STAI Trait-anxiety measure correlated significantly with AL. Test-retest correlations for STAI State-anxiety measures and STAI State- and Trait-anxiety measures obtained in the same testing session were significant. State-anxiety scores obtained just prior to Rorschach testing were related to STAI Trait-anxiety scores and initial STAI State-anxiety scores correlated with AL.     

A longitudinal analysis of anxiety and depressive symptoms

The authors modeled depressive and anxiety symptom data from 1,391 participants in a longitudinal study of middle-aged and older Swedish twins (M age = 60.9 years, SD = 13.3). Although anxiety and depression were highly correlated, a model with distinct Anxiety and Depression factors fit the data better than models with Positive and Negative Affect factors or a single Mental Health factor. Lack of well-being was associated with anxiety rather than depression. Over two 3-year intervals, anxiety symptoms led to depressive symptoms, but the relationship was not reciprocal. Anxiety symptoms were more stable than depression. These findings provide additional support for the idea that anxiety symptoms may reflect a personality trait such as neuroticism more than do depressive symptoms and suggest that low positive affect may not be as specific to depression among older adults as in younger people.     

A Bifactor Model of Anxiety Sensitivity: Analysis of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the fit of a bifactor model of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3 (ASI-3; Taylor et al. Psychological Assessment, 19, 176–188, 2007) as well as to examine measurement invariance of the ASI-3 across gender. Participants were undergraduate students from the University of Cincinnati (n?=?954; 63 % female). Results indicated that the bifactor model was the best fit to the data, and that this model of AS is fully invariant in terms of gender. The current findings suggest that anxiety sensitivity consists of a general factor and three independent group factors (rather than a higher-order factor with three correlated lower-order factors). The ASI-3 subscales from the bifactor model however did not provide incremental predictive utility above and beyond the general AS factor with respect to an external anxiety criterion. Related research and clinical implications are discussed.     

Measurement of anxious traits: a contemporary review and synthesis

Trait anxiety is a characteristic predisposition to appraise stimuli as threatening and respond with anxiety. Trait anxiety is proposed to serve as a vulnerability factor for greater frequency and intensity of anxiety experiences as well as the development of anxious pathology. Cognitive, behavioral, and physiological components of trait anxiety have been described. Common self-report measures of trait anxiety are reviewed with an emphasis on: components assessed, factor structure, internal consistency, reliability, and construct validity. Measures were selected if instructions ask individuals to endorse items based on their characteristic, rather than a time sensitive, response. Selection criteria resulted in a focus on the following measures: the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Beck Anxiety Inventory-Trait (BAIT), Cognitive Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAQ), Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales-Trait (EMAS-T), Four Systems Anxiety Questionnaire (FSAQ), State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA), and the Three Systems Anxiety Questionnaire (TSAQ). While the STAI has the advantage of normative data and frequent use in prior research, newer measures, such as the BAIT and the STICSA, demonstrate greater discriminant validity. The strengths and weaknesses of each of the reviewed measures are highlighted. Recommendations for measure selection and future research are provided.     

Differentiating anxiety and depression in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder

To examine affect and cognition in differentiating anxiety and depression, 83 older participants with generalized anxiety disorder completed the Cognitive Checklist (CCL) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). A 3-factor solution was found for the PANAS: positive affect (PA), anxiety and anger (Negative Affect 1 [NA-1]), and guilt and shame (Negative Affect 2 [NA-2]). A 2-factor structure was noted for the CCL. Correlations with anxiety and depression measures suggested that the CCL Depression (CCL-D) subscale showed stronger correlations with depression, whereas the CCL Anxiety subscale did not uniquely correlate with anxiety. The NA-1 subscale correlated positively with measures of depression and anxiety, whereas the PA subscale showed negative correlations. Hierarchical regression suggested that the CCL-D subscale was a significant predictor of self-reported depression.     

Repetitive Thinking in Social Anxiety Disorder: Are Anticipatory Processing and Post-Event Processing Facets of an Underlying Unidimensional Construct?

Existing literature suggests that anticipatory processing and post-event processing—two repetitive thinking processes linked to social anxiety disorder (SAD)—might be better conceptualized as facets of an underlying unidimensional repetitive thinking construct. The current study tested this by examining potential factor structures underlying anticipatory processing and post-event processing. Baseline data from two randomized controlled trials, consisting of 306 participants with SAD who completed anticipatory processing and post-event processing measures in relation to a speech task, were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis. A bifactor model with a General Repetitive Thinking factor and two group factors corresponding to anticipatory processing and post-event processing best fit with the data. Further analyses indicated an optimal model would include only the General Repetitive Thinking factor (reflecting anticipatory processing and a specific aspect of post-event processing) and Post-event Processing group factor (reflecting another specific aspect of post-event processing that is separable), providing evidence against a unidimensional account of repetitive thinking in SAD. Analyses also indicated that the General Repetitive Thinking factor had moderately large associations with social anxiety and life interference (rs = .43 to .47), suggesting its maladaptive nature. The separable Post-event Processing group factor only had small associations with social anxiety (rs = .16 to .27) and was not related to life interference (r = .11), suggesting it may not, in itself, be a maladaptive process. Future research that further characterises the bifactor model components and tests their utility has the potential to improve the conceptualisation and assessment of repetitive thinking in SAD.     

Examining the Factor Structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in Four Distinct Populations: Is the Use of a Total Scale Score Justified?

This study examined the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) using a bifactor model, a higher order model, a 6-factor correlated model, a 2-factor correlated model, and a 1-factor model in 4 distinct populations: college undergraduates (N = 222), community adults (N = 1,394), individuals practicing Buddhist meditation (N = 215), and a clinical sample of individuals with a history of recurrent depression (N = 390). The 6-factor correlated model demonstrated the best fit across samples, whereas the 1- and 2-factor models had poor fit. The higher order model also showed relatively poor fit across samples, suggesting it is not representative of the relationship between subscale factors and a general self-compassion factor. The bifactor model, however, had acceptable fit in the student, community, and meditator samples. Although fit was suboptimal in the clinical sample, results suggested an overall self-compassion factor could still be interpreted with some confidence. Moreover, estimates suggested a general self-compassion factor accounted for at least 90% of the reliable variance in SCS scores across samples, and item factor loadings and intercepts were equivalent across samples. Results suggest that a total SCS score can be used as an overall mesure of self-compassion.     

State vs trait anxiety: A case study in confirmatory factor analysis

The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger et al., 1970) originally divided anxiety into two factors: state anxiety, reflecting how an individual currently feels, and trait anxiety, reflecting how an individual generally feels. Recently, however, Spielberger revised his position to separate the presence and absence of anxiety symptoms within state and trait factors, yielding a hypothetical correlated 4-factor structure (Spielberger et al., 1980). Endler and Magnusson (1965) and Endler et al. (1976) have challenged the state vs trait distinction based upon their own factor analytical results. Since both sets of investigations used exploratory approaches, which do not postulate a particular factor structure, these studies do not provide an explicit test of the state vs trait distinction. A confirmatory factor analytic approach was used in the present study to evaluate Spielberger's 4-factor hypothesis. The subjects were large samples of male air force trainees and high school students for whom STAI data were available. The results of these confirmatory analyses indicated that the factors identified in exploratory analysis by Spielberger and his colleagues accounted for the data quite well.     

The differential association between alexithymia and primary versus secondary psychopathy

Using a sample of 104 college students, this study tested the hypothesis that alexithymia is positively related to secondary (also known as “neurotic psychopathy”), but not primary psychopathy (i.e., inability to form emotional bonds with others and a fear insensitivity). Participants completed the TAS-20 (alexithymia), the LSRP (primary and secondary psychopathy), the PPI-R (psychopathy), and the trait version of the STAI (trait anxiety). The interaction between the latter two measures was used as a second index of primary and secondary psychopathy. Support was found for the study hypothesis with both methods of assessing psychopathy (i.e., the LSRP subscales or the combination of the PPI-R and the STAI). These results further our understanding of both alexithymia and psychopathy.