The implicit theories approach to the self-monitoring controversy

In the face of uncertainty and disagreement about the meaning and measurement of the self-monitoring construct, the author proposes an implicit theories approach to shed light on what self-monitoring scales may be tapping. The first study explored people's notions of what high and low self-monitors are like, based on the statements in the 18-item Self-Monitoring Scale (Gangestad and Snyder, 1985). The second study compared that measure with Lennox and Wolfe's (1984) Revised Self-Monitoring Scale and examined defensive motivation within the scales. The third study consisted of two experiments to determine whether subjects perceived the items of Gangestad and Snyder's Self-Monitoring Scale as reflecting a unitary latent entity or separate, contradictory variables. It was concluded that the implicit theories approach appears to be a useful complement to traditional factor analytic studies, providing new ways of looking at a personality construct, clarifying some theoretical issues, and generating hypotheses for future research.     

Self-monitoring processes in stutterers

The Self-Monitoring Scale developed by Snyder (1974) was administered to 26 adult stutterers and 26 nonstutterers. The purpose of the study was to determine if stutterers differed significantly in their level of self-monitoring compared with fluent speakers. It was hypothesized that stutterers would be classified as low self-monitoring individuals. The results lend support to this hypothesis. Analysis of the scores of the Self-Monitoring Scale, as suggested by Briggs et al. (1980), was also carried out. These findings add further support to the hypothesis that stutterers tend to be low self-monitors.     

Development and Validation of an Adjective Check List to Assess the Millon Personality Types in a Normal Population

A 405-item experimental Personality Adjective Check List (PACL) was refined into a 153-item form to assess the personality types outlined by Millon (1969, 1981) in a normal population. Scale construction and validation followed a method outlined by Loevinger (1957, 1972). Nine scales were developed based on the responses of 459 men and women, one for each of Milton's eight basic personalities plus an Experimental scale measuring aspects of his three more severe types. Extensive reliability and validity analyses were conducted involving over 2,200 men and women from across the United States, including a factor analysis of scales. These revealed good internal consistency for each scale, good test-retest reliability over a 3-month period, adequate factor structure, and good convergent and discriminant validity based on self-report data. Results indicated that Millon's basic types exist in normal form much as they are postulated to exist as disorders. Research efforts focusing on Millon's theory as it applies to normals may bring a more complete understanding of the entire spectrum of personality.     

Internet research: Self-monitoring and judgments of attractiveness

Two studies examined the relationship between self-monitoring and factors influencing romantic attraction to others. In Study 1, participants completed an Internet-mediated version of the Self-Monitoring Scale (Gangestad & Snyder, 1985) and indicated which of two people (one physically attractive, one with a more desirable personality) they found most attractive. Results matched previous findings (Snyder, Berscheid, & Glick, 1985), but the effect was smaller. Study 2, a paper-and-pencil replication of Study 1, examined whether the weaker effect was due to Internet mediation and found no differences in the choices made by high and low self-monitors. Results suggested that while determinants of attraction may vary for different populations, Internet research methods can tap the same phenomena as traditional laboratory studies.     

Reliability and construct validity of the College Student Stress Scale

Reliability and construct validity of the 11-item College Student Stress Scale were investigated with exploratory (N = 273) and confirmatory factor analyses (N = 185) in undergraduate college students. Two factors were observed; however, reliability of the 3-item factor was too low and one item failed to load on either factor. A 7-item measure (Factor 1) had acceptable reliability (.81) and good convergence with the Perceived Stress Scale. This measure was significantly correlated with Neuroticism, Test Anxiety, and Self-efficacy for Learning, but not Social Desirability or age.     

Measuring explicit attitude toward doping: Review of the psychometric properties of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale

ObjectivesDoping use is seldom an accident – it is a deliberate action often requiring considerable commitment. Attitudes are known to influence this type of action and hence they are likely to be predictive of doping-related behaviours. To measure ‘doping attitude’, a valid and reliable tool is required.DesignThis paper briefly reviews methodological issues in doping attitude research, introduces the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale (PEAS) and provides a comparative analysis of its reliability and validity as a self-reported measure of a generalized doping attitude.MethodsThe scale's reliability was examined with Cronbach's internal consistency coefficient and test–retest correlations using data from 9 independent studies encompassing 7 years. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to assess the scale's structure. Known-groups' validation strategy was employed to examine construct validity in 4 studies.ResultsEstimates of the PEAS' internal consistency (ranged between .71 and .91 across various samples) provided good evidence of the scale's simultaneous reliability. The chi-square/df ratio in all cases was below the threshold with an average of 1.85 (ranging from 1.370 to 2.291), indicating an acceptable measurement model fit. Theoretically expected difference in doping attitudes was found between doping users and non-users with elevated PEAS scores from users, as well as predictable dynamics of PEAS scores across the repeated measures, provided support for construct validity of the scale.ConclusionThe psychometric properties of the 17-item unidimensional PEAS suggest that the scale is a useful tool for measuring self-declared attitudes toward doping, with adequate reliability and promising validity estimates. Suggestions are discussed for the continuous scale development and validation process.     

The development of a smoking-specific locus of control scale

Abstract

A 32-item questionnaire was designed to measure multidimensional locus of control beliefs specifically about giving up smoking (SLC Scale), and administered along with the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC) and a short smoking information questionnaire to 211 smokers. Psychometric analyses of the SLC scales included a series of repeated factor and reliability analyses which resulted in a final three-factor solution, containing 11 of the original SLC items. The three factors represented the following types of locus of control for smoking: a combined Internal-Chance factor, a Significant Others factor, and a Powerful Others factor with Chronbach's alpha coefficients of internal reliability of 0.63, 0.56 and 0.55 respectively. Analyses relating to the reliability and validity of the SLC scale are presented and discussed. As expected the SLC correlated more sensibly and significantly with subjects' reported behaviour and intentions regarding giving up smoking than did the MHLC scales.     

Relationship of physicians' nonverbal communication skill to patient satisfaction, appointment noncompliance, and physician workload

A field study of 28 residents in family practice was conducted. Physicians' self-reports of empathy, self-monitoring ability, and affective communication skill as well as their objectively measured nonverbal communication skills were examined as predictors of patient satisfaction, appointment noncompliance, and physician workload (schedule density). Physicians completed the Hogan Empathy Scale, Snyder Self-Monitoring Scale, Affective Communication Test, short form of the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity, and a nonverbal encoding task. Patient satisfaction with communication, affective care, and technical care was assessed using a 25-item, visit-specific satisfaction scale. Appointment records were used to determine the number of patients seen by each physician and the compliance of patients with scheduled appointments. Results indicated that the three self-report measures were unrelated to the measures of patient noncompliance and patient satisfaction, but self-reported affective communication ability was significantly correlated with physician workload. Objectively measured physician sensitivity to audio communication predicted patient compliance: More sensitive physicians experienced fewer unrescheduled appointment cancellations. Nonverbal encoding skill was significantly related to patient satisfaction with affective care and to physician workload.     

Revision of the self-monitoring scale

Snyder's (1974) Self-Monitoring Scale exhibits a stable factor structure that does not correspond to the five-component theoretical structure he presents. Sets of face-valid items that better approximate the theoretical structure are described. Correlations between these sets of items and measures of other constructs reveal that four of the five components are positively related to social anxiety. Effective social interaction is supposedly the high self-monitor's forte, and social anxiety appears to be incompatible with this. The correlational results therefore question the entire theory and indicate the need for a narrower definition of the construct. Adopting such a definition from Snyder's review article (1979), we present a 13-item Revised Self-Monitoring scale which measures only sensitivity to the expressive behavior of others and ability to modify self-presentation. A 20-item Concern for Appropriateness scale is also described. This scale measures 2 variables that are directly associated with social anxiety--cross-situational variability and attention to social comparison information. Both scales have acceptable internal consistency, and both yield 2 subscale scores as well as a total score. Prospective users of either scale are advised to treat the 3 scores separately.     

Family Correlates of Adolescent Self-Monitoring and Social Competence

The purpose of this study was to investigate linkages between adolescent self-monitoring, global social competence, and parenting and family environment dimensions of support and encouragement of autonomy. The sample consisted of 233 young women and 199 young men at 2 southwestern universities. The primary measures used were the Family Environment Scale (R. H. Moos, 1981), the Parent Behavior Form (L. Worell & J. Worell, 1974), the revised Self-Monitoring Scale (M. Snyder, 1987), and the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (R. Helmreich, J. Stapp, & C. Ervin, 1974). Findings indicated that family variables are more strongly associated with social competence than with self-monitoring; family support was, overall, a more important ingredient of social competence than was autonomy. Women and men had different patterns of associations among specific variables.     

Family correlates of adolescent self-monitoring and social competence.

The purpose of this study was to investigate linkages between adolescent self-monitoring, global social competence, and parenting and family environment dimensions of support and encouragement of autonomy. The sample consisted of 233 young women and 199 young men at 2 southwestern universities. The primary measures used were the Family Environment Scale (R. H. Moos, 1981), the Parent Behavior Form (L. Worell & J. Worell, 1974), the revised Self-Monitoring Scale (M. Snyder, 1987), and the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (R. Helmreich, J. Stapp, & C. Ervin, 1974). Findings indicated that family variables are more strongly associated with social competence than with self-monitoring; family support was, overall, a more important ingredient of social competence than was autonomy. Women and men had different patterns of associations among specific variables.     

Development and evaluation of the psychometric properties of the parents' Perceptions of Physical Activity Importance and their Children's Ability Questionnaire (PPPAICAQ)

ObjectivesThe purpose of the present study was to develop and psychometrically evaluate a new measure of parental perceptions grounded in the Eccles' parental socialization framework: the Parents' Perceptions of Physical Activity Importance and their Children's Ability Questionnaire (PPPAICAQ).DesignCross-sectional with self-reported questionnaires.MethodThe total sample comprised 1100 parents of children (6–11 years old) and was randomly divided in third (one calibration and two validation samples). Data were analyzed with reliability, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), multi-group CFAs as well as with correlational analyses.ResultsResults of the initial confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) of the 2-factor 12-item model on the calibration sample resulted in a poor fit to the data. Re-estimation of the PPPAICAQ resulted in the deletion of 4 initial items. The 2-factor 8-item model revealed a good fit to the data for the three samples. Results of two multiple-group CFAs showed that the final model was partially invariant across the father and mother as well as the boy and girl samples. The patterns of relationships between parents' motivation, parents' support and the PPPAICAQ subscales provided evidence for the criterion-related validity of the PPPAICAQ.ConclusionThis study provided support for the reliability and validity of the PPPAICAQ. The PPPAICAQ is an instrument that will be useful for theoretically-driven research on parental socialization influence on children’ PA.     

Psychometric properties of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale among Irish and British men

The psychometric soundness of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS; Mayville, Williamson, White, Netemeyer, & Drab, 2002), a measure of muscle dysmorphia symptoms, was investigated using two independent online samples of Irish and British men (ns = 307 and 306, respectively). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed that, compared to the original 5-component solution for the 19-item MASS, a 6-item unidimensional version offered better fit to the data. Findings further upheld the internal consistency reliability, construct validity (e.g., via its associations with internalization of the muscular ideal and physical appearance comparisons), and discriminant validity (e.g., via its nonsignificant relationship with social desirability) of the MASS's scores. The limitations associated with the current research are discussed and directions for future research are articulated.     

Reliability,Validity and Invariance of the Narcissistic Personality Questionnaire for Children-Revised (NPQC-R)

Using confirmatory factor analysis, this study compared the 4-factor 18-item Narcissistic Personality Questionnaire for Children (NPQC) and the 2-factor, 12-item Narcissistic Personality Questionnaire for Children-Revised (NPQC-R). Support was found for the 2-factor structure of the 12-item NPQC-R using two independent adolescent school-based samples (n = 479 and n = 470). The 2-factor NPQC-R model (i.e., Superiority, Exploitativeness) showed a better fit in both adolescent samples than the alternative 4-factor NPQC model. There was strong support for NPQC-R’s invariance across gender and age. The NPQC-R was found to have reasonable internal consistency estimates, test–retest reliability estimates, and adequate convergent and discriminant validity estimates. Collectively, these results support the utility of the NPQC-R as a measure of narcissism in children and adolescents. A copy of the NPQC-R and scoring key can be obtained from Rebecca P. Ang.     

Angel or demon? Self-monitoring differences in the mental representations of current versus former romantic partners

We investigated whether high and low self-monitors had (a) segregated/integrated and (b) uniformly favorable (angelic)/uniformly unfavorable (demonic) mental representations of actual romantic partners. Self-monitoring was assessed using the 25-item Self-Monitoring Scale and the structure of mental representations was calculated using a modified segregation/integration measure. In Study 1, low self-monitors were more likely than high self-monitors to have (a) segregated and (b) disproportionally favorable mental representations of their current romantic partners. In Study 2, low self-monitors were more likely than high self-monitors to have (a) segregated and (b) generally unfavorable mental representations of their former romantic partners. Self-monitoring differences were not moderated in either study by relationship longevity or conflict.     

A psychometric evaluation of the Harvey Imposter Phenomenon Scale

In this article, we present psychometric properties on the 14-item Harvey Imposter Phenomenon (IP) Scale (Harvey, 1981) among a sample of U.S. adolescents (N = 136). Item analyses, internal consistency reliability, and principal components analysis (PCA) were computed to assess the reliability and factor structure of the IP scores. Although the internal consistency reliability (e.g., Cronbach's alpha) was reasonably acceptable (alpha =.70), the item analyses and subsequent PCA suggest concern for the content homogeneity and factor structure of composite scores obtained from the 14-item measure. The results of this study suggest that the indiscriminate use of the Harvey IP Scale is cautioned relative to the insufficient psychometric properties.     

The First Twenty Years of the Will and the Ways: An Examination of Score Reliability Distribution on Snyder’s Dispositional Hope Scale

C. R. Snyder has established hope theory as an important contributor to positive psychology. As the empirical evidence continues to grow, hope researchers need to have confidence that their measures will produce reliable scores. This study presents a reliability generalization on both the internal consistency and test–retest reliability estimates from Snyder’s dispositional hope scale. While over 300 published works were found to have cited the target article 74 present internal consistency scores and 17 reported scores for test–retest reliability. The results of the reliability generalization suggest support for the score reliabilities produced by the dispositional hope scale. However, internal consistency was higher for studies using the eight-item response format (α = 0.82) compared to those using the four-item response format (α = 0.77). Additionally, the test–retest score reliability was high 0.80 with no statistically significant differences by response format. Findings also demonstrated that score reliability estimates were not significantly influenced by the coded sample characteristics.