Semantic differential studies of children's language development: Some methodological problems

A semantic differential study of development of antonym meanings revealed methodological problems (e.g., concept-scale interaction and developmental changes in scale-checking style) not fully considered in previous semantic differential investigations of child language development. Twenty adjectives were rated on 10 scales by subjects from grades K to 5 (approximately 6 through 11 years old) and adults. Analyses by means, polarity ratings, and average sums of squared differences failed to yield consistent developmental trends. Subjects' choices of scale ratings did show clear age-related differences: Grades K and 1 chose extreme ratings almost exclusively; grades 2 through 4 showed an increase in neutral choices and decreases in extreme ratings; grades 4 and 5 and adults chose extreme ratings least often, neutral choices most often, and more intermediate ratings than any younger subjects. Results show that scale choice is a crucial factor in designing semantic differential studies with children, there is a low correlation between mean scores and ratings given by individual children, and shifts in scale-checking style should be considered when interpreting apparent developmental changes in children's semantic differential ratings.     

Interest and liking: Further sequential effects

This study was designed to investigate subjects’ interest and liking preferences for stimuli varying in type and level of familiarity. Subjects were presented with stimulus material in the form of slides, and were asked to view the slides firstly without instruction, and then twice more in order to rate the material for interest and liking. Half the subjects were asked to rate liking before interest, and half rated interest before liking. Results showed that interest ratings were relatively unaffected by the rating sequence, whereas ratings of liking were affected: when ratings of likingpreceded interest ratings, familiar items were preferred to less familiar items, but when ratings of liking were madeafter interest ratings, ratings of liking for less familiar items were preferred to more familiar items. This study forms part of the work of the Leicester Aesthetics Research Group. The work was supported by a grant from the Research Board, University of Leicester.     

Psychometric characteristics of the MMPI-2 Cook-Medley Hostility scale

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) Cook-Medley Hostility scale (Ho) has been studied a great deal because of its relation to coronary disease and mortality. However, little research has been conducted with the Ho scale on the revised MMPI (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989). This study examined the psychometric characteristics of the MMPI-2 Ho scale. Only nine of the original 50 Ho items were slightly changed in the revision. Ho scores were highly correlated with MMPI-2 scales CYN, K, TPA, and ASP, supporting the interpretation of Ho as a measure of cynicism. High correlations with other MMPI-2 scales also suggested that Ho is related to general psychopathology and negative affectivity. Male Ho scorers were rated by their spouses as hotheaded, bossy, demanding, and argumentative. For women, Ho scale scores were less strongly associated with ratings of overt hostility. Principal components analysis of Ho revealed four underlying dimensions: Cynicism, Hypersensitivity, Aggressive Responding, and Social Avoidance.     

Construct Validity of the Perceived Criticism Measure

The construct validity of the Perceived Criticism Measure (PCM) was examined in 2 studies. In Study 1, 50 community couples participated in problem-solving interactions after which they rated interaction-specific perceived criticism and their criticism of their spouses. In addition, they provided ratings of perceived criticism for their relationship overall and completed measures of psychopathology and marital satisfaction. For both husbands and wives, convergent validity was demonstrated by moderate-to-large correlations between the PCM and spouses' own ratings of their criticism for both general and interaction-specific perceived criticism. In Study 2, 37 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and their spouses participated in problem-solving interactions and provided ratings of marital satisfaction and general perceived criticism. Five untrained coders rated the interactions according to their own definitions of the relatives' destructive criticism of the patient. Their aggregated ratings proved strongly related to patients' PCM scores. Higher PCM scores were related to lower marital satisfaction in both Studies 1 and 2. The results of these studies are supportive of the convergent validity of the Perceived Criticism Measure. Evidence of discriminant validity was mixed.     

Verbal and behavioral responses to familiar and unfamiliar music

Thirty adult subjects completed an Operant Music Listening Recorder (OMLR) task with two unfamiliar and two familiar music channels (one “popular” and one “classical” in each case), then rated the music on each channel on seven-point scales for liking, quality, and familiarity. The two familiar music channels received significantly higher ratings than the two unfamiliar channels on all three rating scales, and there were no significant main effects or interactions involving musical style. The predictions (a) that subjects would spend more time listening to the familiar channels on the OMLR task, and (b) that measures of listening time would display higher correlations with ratings of liking than with those of quality both received weak support from the direction of the results, but neither was confirmed by statistical significance tests. The results are discussed in terms of the fragmentation between the affective and evaluative components of attitudes toward music.     

The circle as a model for the interpersonal domain of Swedish trait terms

Swedish interpersonal traits were assumed to have the structure demonstrated by Wiggins for the Interpersonal Adjective Scales in English. Positive and negative interpersonal trait terms were rated for accuracy when describing people. The ratings were used to construct 16 eight-item scales which were ordered relative to two principal components and labelled A to P. The evaluative meaning of each scale item was rated by a second group. The ranks of the mean ratings for the scales followed expectations. The 16 scales were combined into eight scales PA, BC, DE, etc., to NO. From a new group of subjects (N = 159) self-ratings were obtained. The correlations between the eight scales were used to obtain maximum-likelihood estimates of population coefficients of a hypothetical circulant matrix. A circumplex model fitted the data well and the two equally large orthogonal components ordered the PA to NO variables within a circular semantic space. The model was interpreted as a structural representation of basic-level categories for interpersonal attributes of personality in the natural language.     

A CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL REEXAMINATION OF THE MEASUREMENT OF THE SOCIAL DESIRABILITY OF ITEMS: IMPLICATIONS FOR DETECTING DESIRABLE RESPONSE STYLE AND SCALE DEVELOPMENT

This paper calls into question traditional methods of measuring the social desirability of items and their use in scale construction. First, we make explicit that the proper focus for desirability studies of items and traits are the rated desirabilities of the alternative item responses indicating different trait levels. Second, the results from our first study show that the relation between degree of endorsement of an item and its judged desirability level is often nonlinear and varies across items such that no general model of item desirability can be adopted that will accurately represent the relations across all items, traits, and trait levels. In addition, the nature of these relationships can vary depending on whether desirability is considered in a work or general context. Third, results from a second study indicate specifically that people when instructed to self-present in a maximally desirable manner will choose for some attributes a moderate level of endorsement (e.g., "agree") rather than a more extreme response option (e.g., "strongly agree"). Subjects offer several different reasons for viewing the less extreme response options, which yield more moderate trait level scores, as more desirable. These reasons are linked to perceptions of the more extreme response option as being associated with negative behaviors and concerns about how others will view a more extreme response to the item. Both studies indicate that desirable responding to personality items is more complex than previously believed.     

Peer ratings of depression,anxiety, and aggression in inpatient and elementary school children: Rating biases and influence of rater's self-reported depression,anxiety, and aggression

Using parallel self-, peer, and teacher rating scales, several rating biases in children's peer ratings of depression, anxiety, and aggression were examined. Participants were 66 inpatient and 133 elementary school children (N = 199, 109 boys, 90 girls; 61% white, 39% black) aged 8 to 12, and their teachers. Results showed significant halo bias in both the children's peer ratings and the teachers' ratings. Children's self-reports on each of the three traits were significantly related to their peer ratings of the same trait, while adjusting for socioeconomic status and the peers' teachers' ratings of the same trait. Children who rated themselves as high on each trait rated their peers significantly higher on the same trait than children who rated themselves as medium or low; and for depression and anxiety, those who rated themselves as medium rated their peers significantly higher on those traits than those who rated themselves as low. For both depression and aggression, children's self-reports on the trait were significantly related to their peer ratings of the same trait, but not significantly related to their peer ratings of different traits. Disagreements between children's and teachers' ratings of the peers on all three traits were significantly related to child self-reports on each trait, indicating a possible distortion in children's peer ratings due to self-report. The implications of the results for both peer and others' assessments are discussed, and further investigation of rating biases in other informants' assessments is encouraged.These data were collected as part of the author's doctoral dissertation submitted to Memphis State University. Appreciation is expressed to Stacey Donegan for assistance with the literature review for an earlier version of this paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, March 1993.     

Correspondence between personality trait ratings and behavioral events

To investigate the validity of the trait, Energetic, two studies were conducted in which trait ratings of Energetic and objective measures of performance were recorded. The first study used naive raters (N= 55) who observed pairs of subjects perform in a laboratory setting. There was 84% agreement (p < .001) among the raters as to which person was more Energetic, and people rated as more Energetic performed more energetically on the objectively measured tasks (p < .001). The second study used peer ratings of Energetic and objective measures of energetic behavior in a laboratory setting. There was high agreement among the peers in ratings of Energetic, r = .95 (N = 30) and r = .93 (N = 31) for two groups. Nine men from the upper-quartile and nine men from the lower-quartile of the Energetic scores were tested in the laboratory and were given a structured interview regarding their physical activities. The correlation between peer ratings and laboratory performance was .56 and between peer ratings and the interview data, .64. The results support the position that trait ratings can be valid indicators of regularities in behavior. The procedures used in these studies could be a generally useful model for investigations of the validity of trait ratings.     

Adult attachment style and partner choice: Correlational and experimental findings

Three studies were conducted to assess the role of attachment style in partner selection using both correlational and experimental methods. Study 1 (n = 83 couples) assessed correlations between partner ratings on attachment-style dimensions and the relations between own and partner attachment style and relationship satisfaction. In Study 2 (n = 226) and Study 3 (n = 146), participants who varied in terms of attachment style rated the desirability of potential partners who also differed in terms of attachment style. Results of all three studies generally suggested that individuals were most attracted to partners with similar attachment styles. For example, anxious individuals tended to be dating anxious partners in Study 1, and they preferred anxious partners over secure and avoidant partners in Studies 2 and 3 (combined data). Thus, not all individuals preferred secure partners. Second, unlike previous studies that looked primarily at partner correlations, there was no evidence of anxious/avoidant matching. In fact, anxious individuals seemed particularly averse to avoidant partners. Finally, ratings of parental caregiving styles (especially ratings of mothers) were associated with adult attachment dimensions and partner choices. For example, individuals who rated their mothers as more cold and ambivalent were less attracted to secure partners. Clinical and research implications are discussed.     

Social desirability, personality questionnaires, and the “better than average” effect

It is well established that respondents are much more likely to rate themselves highly on personality questionnaire items with high social desirability (SD) than on items with low SD. However, conflicting explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. In the present study, 286 participants were randomly assigned to four groups that rated 119 items from two well-known personality questionnaires. One group of participants rated themselves, a second group rated their family and friends, a third rated “people in general,” and a fourth rated the items’ SD. It was found that mean SD ratings of personality items were highly correlated with mean self-ratings and with mean ratings of family and friends for the same items (all rs > .800), but not with mean ratings of “people in general.” In other words, participants strongly tended to rate themselves, their family, and their friends as high on socially desirable qualities, but this tendency did not extend to ratings of people in general. These results support the conclusion that respondents’ personality ratings of themselves, their family and friends, but not of people in general, are influenced by the form of self-serving bias known as the “better than average effect.”     

The Relationships among Word Association Test,Objective Personality Test Scores and Ratings of Clinical Behavior in Psychiatric Patients

A 50-item word association test, selected personality scales and behavior ratings on the MACC scale were collected on 46 psychiatric in-patients. The internal structure of the word association test as well as correlations with personality inventories and behavior ratings were studied. Intra-test analysis of the association test indicates two independent dimensions, cognitive-memory disorganization and disturbances in reaction time. The cognitive-memory disturbance indices correlate with the Pa scale of the MMPI but not with the Pt, K, and MAS and only slightly with Hy. The degree of social isolation of a patient is predictable from the word association scores of cognitive-memory disruption while the personality inventory scales are better at predicting patients' arousal or tension level as rated by staff.     

Psychophysiological and subjective indices of emotion as a function of age and gender

Old, middle-aged and young persons of both genders were presented with slides containing pictorial stimuli that varied in emotional content. Each picture was rated on three dimensions: (1) valence; (2) arousal; and (3) dominance, using a 25-point scale. Heart rate, skin conductance, and forehead and cheek EMG were recorded during each slide presentation. The old and middle-aged groups showed greatly attenuated psychophysiological responses, compared to the young group. However, the old and middle-aged subjects used more extreme ratings than the young subjects on both the valence and arousal dimensions. Females were more valence-sensitive than males, but males in general used more extreme ratings of arousal than females. These results suggest a tendency to report increased felt emotion but decreased physiological response to emotional stimuli across the life span.     

Comparability of Self‐Reported Conscientiousness Across 21 Countries

In cross‐national studies, mean levels of self‐reported phenomena are often not congruent with more objective criteria. One prominent explanation for such findings is that people make self‐report judgements in relation to culture‐specific standards (often called the reference group effect), thereby undermining the cross‐cultural comparability of the judgements. We employed a simple method called anchoring vignettes in order to test whether people from 21 different countries have varying standards for Conscientiousness, a Big Five personality trait that has repeatedly shown unexpected nation‐level relationships with external criteria. Participants rated their own Conscientiousness and that of 30 hypothetical persons portrayed in short vignettes. The latter type of ratings was expected to reveal individual differences in standards of Conscientiousness. The vignettes were rated relatively similarly in all countries, suggesting no substantial culture‐related differences in standards for Conscientiousness. Controlling for the small differences in standards did not substantially change the rankings of countries on mean self‐ratings or the predictive validities of these rankings for objective criteria. These findings are not consistent with mean self‐rated Conscientiousness scores being influenced by culture‐specific standards. The technique of anchoring vignettes can be used in various types of studies to assess the potentially confounding effects of reference levels. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Correlates of depressed mood in normal children

Two instruments which have been proposed as measures of clinical depression in children and an ad hoc teacher rating were given to a group of 109 normal children. The Children's Depression Inventory (CDI), the Peer Nomination Inventory for Depression (PNID), and a teacher rating of depression were given along with the Conner s Teacher Rating Scale (TRS), teacher ratings of somatic complaints, peer popularity, and absenteeism, and peer ratings of popularity to examine the behavioral correlates of depressed mood in normal children. While few sex differences were found on mean depression scores, different patterns of correlations were found for the two sexes. For males, there were no significant correlations among the three depression measures, but all three depression measures were correlated with unpopularity and conduct problem ratings on the TRS. For females, the three depression measures were adequately intercorrelated. The teacher rating of depression was correlated with general deviance as measured by the TRS, but the CDI and PNID were correlated with TRS ratings of conduct problems, with peer ratings of unpopularity, and with teacher ratings of somatic complaints. Implications for the issue of the possible existence of a clinical syndrome of depression in children were discussed.     

Construct validation of a measure of ingratiatory behaviour in organizational settings

To assess the construct validity of an instrument for Measuring Ingratiatory Behaviour in Organizational settings (MIBOS), 51 supervisors completed a 12-item version of the scale, indicating the frequency with which they used ingratiatory behavior at work. Their immediate superiors (targets of the ingratiation attempts) rated the subject on four hypothesized correlates of ingratiation tactics, liking for the subject, feeling comfortable in the subject’s company, subject’s perceived career success and subject’s perceived job performance. Each of the correlations between MIBOS and these superior ratings were significant, suggesting that the instrument possesses sufficient validity to justify its use in future research into ingratiation in organizations.     

Possible barnum effect in the five factor model: do respondents accept random neo personality inventory-revised scores as their actual trait profile?

This study investigated a possible Barnum effect in personality traits, i.e., that persons accept a false trait profile as correct. Having answered the Norwegian translation of the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised, a group of 75 students, 56 (five women military aviation cadets and 19 (10 women) graduate students, received a random T-score profile and were asked to rate their agreement on a 7-point scale. For all personality traits, i.e., facets and domains measured by the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised, positive correlations ranging from .08 to .64 were found between the agreement ratings and the similarity between the random false scores and the actual scores. The respondents identified and rejected random T scores that deviated far from their actual scores, which works against the Barnum effect. Correct identification correlated negatively with Neuroticism r = -.41) and positively (r = .53) with Conscientiousness.     

Personality and judgements of abstract,pop art,and representational paintings

This study was concerned with the question of which personality variables are most predictive of judgements of particular types of painting. One hundred and twenty‐one participants rated 24 slides of abstract, pop art, and representational paintings. They then completed two questionnaires which measured sensation seeking (SS) and the ‘Big Five’ personality dimensions. Thrill and Adventure Seeking was positively correlated with a liking of representational art while Disinhibition was associated with positive ratings of abstract art and pop art. Neuroticism was positively correlated with positive ratings of abstract and pop art, while conscientiousness was linked to liking of representational art. Openness to Experience was linked to positive ratings of all three art types. Agreeableness was negatively linked to liking of pop art. It was also found that art education and frequency of visits to art galleries were linked to positive ratings of abstract paintings. Regressional analyses showed about a fifth of the variance could be accounted for by personality and demographic variables. Personality variables were most strongly linked to positive judgements of representational art and least related to ratings of pop art. Overall the sensation seeking variables accounted for more of the variance than the big five dimensions. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.