Passion and psychological adjustment: a test of the person-environment fit hypothesis

Passion represents a strong inclination toward an activity that is important, liked, and in which significant time is invested. Although a harmonious passion is well integrated in one's identity and is emitted willingly, obsessive passion is not well integrated and is emitted out of internal pressure. This study tested for the presence of a Passion x Environment fit interaction with respect to psychological adjustment. Elite hockey players (N = 233) who tried out for a team in a highly competitive league participated in this short-term longitudinal study. As hypothesized, being selected by the highly competitive leagues led to higher psychological adjustment than not being selected by such leagues. Two months later, an interaction revealed that among athletes who were playing in highly competitive leagues, obsessively passionate athletes reported higher psychological adjustment than did harmonious athletes. Conversely, among athletes playing in less competitive leagues, harmonious athletes reported higher psychological adjustment than did obsessive athletes.     

“It’s a big adjustment coming from the reserve to living in a totally different society”: Exploring the well-being of First Nations athletes playing sports in an urban mainstream context

Indigenous athletes living in remote or rural areas, interested in pursuing sport at elite levels, often relocate from their home communities to urban “mainstream” centres. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the psychological well-being and multicultural adjustment experiences of two relocating First Nations athletes. Conversational group interviews and photovoice reflections were adopted to hear stories from six participants: two First Nations female siblings who relocated from a rural First Nation community to pursue hockey, the athletes’ parents, and the athletes’ billet parents. Five themes were created to explain how the athletes adjusted and strove to flourish in their new environment: (1) Interconnected webs of support; (2) Managing emotional challenges; (3) Progressing during setbacks; (4) Comfort in new environments; and, (5) Maintaining cultural connections. Findings suggest that First Nations athletes who relocate from their home communities may require a robust support network and nurturing environment to flourish in an urban mainstream sport context.     

Parenting, achievement strategies and satisfaction in ice hockey

The aim of this study is to understand adolescent players' satisfaction as a function of parenting styles, players' achievement strategies, and their norm breaking behavior. Finnish 14- and 16-year-old ice-hockey players (n=1018) completed a questionnaire measuring their achievement strategies (SAQ; Nurmi, Salmela--Aro & Haavisto, 1995 b), as well as scales of norm breaking and satisfaction, prepared for the present study. The parents (n=979) filled in scales measuring their parenting styles (CRPR; Pulkkinen, 1996) and attitudes towards norm breaking. Results revealed that players from authoritative families who showed a high level of mastery-orientation expressed high satisfaction in playing ice hockey. Results also showed negative associations between authoritative parenting and both task irrelevant and norm breaking behavior. Parents with parental stress and those with authoritarian parenting styles showed positive attitudes to norm breaking behavior, and players from authoritarian and parental stress homes showed norm breaking behavior in ice hockey. There was no association between norm breaking behavior and player satisfaction. Our results contribute to the planning of a coaching system that serves more educational and developmental purposes, and that encourages the desire to play ice hockey as a hobby.     

Female relative age effects and the second-quartile phenomenon in young female ice hockey players

ObjectivesRelative age effects exist across sports and cultures (Cobley, Baker, Wattie, & McKenna, 2009), though a recent, unusual trend is females born in the second quartile of the selection year are most over-represented on elite teams. The first purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that the second-quartile phenomenon was the result of first-quartile female athletes registering to play male sport. Due to the nature of the collected data, a secondary purpose was to examine relative age effects across female age divisions.DesignCross-sectional, with multiple chi-square analyses.MethodPlayers included 29,924 female ice hockey players (ages 7–17 years) from the Ontario Hockey Federation. Birthdates were converted into quartiles following the Hockey Canada selection year.ResultsRelative age effects (with the second quartile most over-represented) existed for the entire sample (χ² [3, 29923] = 401.95, p < 0.001), those registered for female ice hockey (χ² [3, 24984] = 369.90, p < 0.001) and those registered for male ice hockey (χ² [3, 4938] = 37.88, p < 0.001). The strength of the effect lessened as athletes aged.ConclusionIt appears the second-quartile phenomenon cannot be explained by athletes’ choice to play male sport. Further, female relative age effects appear strongest at younger ages. The discussion includes integration of results with previous literature, along with plausible explanations.     

Increasing task complexity and ice hockey skills of youth athletes

The objective of this pilot study was to investigate the effects on cognitive performance of progressively adding tasks specific to ice hockey (skating, stick handling, and obstacle avoidance) during a visual interference task (Stroop Color Word Test-interference condition). In addition, the effects on locomotor performance of progressively adding tasks of stickhandling, visual interference, and obstacle avoidance related to maximal skating speed and minimal obstacle clearance were investigated in eight male athletes ages 10 to 12 years. Results revealed decreased performance on both cognitive and physical measures with increased task complexity, suggesting that adding complexity to an environment influences hockey skill performance.     

When the final whistle blows: Social identity pathways support mental health and life satisfaction after retirement from competitive sport

For many athletes, retirement from higher levels of competitive sport poses significant challenges. Research has shown that athletic identity is a key predictor of adjustment trajectories, but the mechanisms through which this affects outcomes are less clear. Added to this, there has been limited research on the role that wider social identities, and the resources they enable, play in adjustment. Addressing both these issues, we examined theoretically derived social identity pathways to retirement adjustment in athletes who had played sport at higher competitive levels and two potential mechanisms, or psychological resources, through which adjustment might be enabled. This was examined in two samples: retired athletes from countries in Western (n = 215) and Eastern (n = 183) regions. Loss of athletic identity, social group memberships (multiple, maintained and new), psychological resources (perceived meaning in life and control), and adjustment (life satisfaction, depression, and perceived physical health) were assessed. In both samples, the loss of athletic identity undermined adjustment by reducing meaning in life and perceived control. Path analysis showed that both maintained and gained social group memberships counteracted the negative effects of athletic identity loss on adjustment. Evidence that these pathways enabled access to psychological resources was found primarily in Chinese athletes, with maintained groups influencing personal control and new groups influencing meaning in life. These findings highlight the importance of social identity processes to retirement from higher levels of competitive sport and the mechanisms through which they can either support or undermine adjustment.     

Negative Psychological Experiences and Saliva Secretory Immunoglobulin A in Field Hockey Players

Understanding psychological factors that affect immunity in sport might help to reduce infection risk in athletes. The present study examined within-person changes and individual differences in perceived coach control, intentions to drop out, and saliva secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA). Thirty-two field hockey players completed questionnaires and provided saliva samples over a 2-month period. Within-person increases in individuals’ perceptions of psychological control and intentions to drop out were positively associated with SIgA concentration. Individual differences in control or drop-out intentions were not associated with SIgA. Interventions in athletes to prevent immune disturbances and reduce infection should consider these psychological factors.     

The experiences of high-performance coaches in the management of difficult athletes

Although research on effective coaching strategies is well documented, researchers are still learning how coaches effectively manage problematic athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate how high-performance coaches managed difficult athletes. We interviewed eight experienced ice hockey coaches from the premiere development stream in Canada for athletes who aspire to play professionally. Through our analysis of the data, we found that these coaches identified problem athletes early, fostered relationships, provided clear expectations and roles, and transformed their behaviors to match the team culture (although this was not always possible). We also found that managing difficult athletes takes a great deal of patience, introspection, and emotional intelligence on the coach’s behalf. Our findings contribute to a limited understanding of the knowledge and strategies used by coaches to manage difficult athletes and maintain a positive team climate.     

Gaze behaviors and decision making accuracy of higher- and lower-level ice hockey referees

BackgroundGaze behaviors are often studied in athletes, but infrequently for sport officials. There is a need to better understand gaze behavior in refereeing in order to improve training and education related to visual search patterns, which have been argued to be related to decision making (Abernethy & Russell, 1987a).ObjectiveTo examine gaze behaviors, decision accuracy, and decision sensitivity (using signal detection analysis) of ice hockey referees of varying skill levels in a laboratory setting.DesignUsing an experimental design, we conducted multiple t-tests.MethodHigher-level (N = 15) and lower-level ice hockey referees (N = 15) wore a head-mounted eye movement recorder and made penalty/no penalty decisions related to ice hockey video clips on a computer screen. We recorded gaze behaviors, decision accuracy, and decision sensitivity for each participant.ResultsResults of the t-tests indicated no group differences in gaze behaviors; however, higher-level referees made significantly more accurate decisions (both accuracy and sensitivity) than lower-level referees.ConclusionHigher-level ice hockey referees are superior to lower-level referees on decision making, but referees do not differ on gaze behaviors. Possibly, higher-level referees process relevant decision making information more effectively.     

Does the Need for Role Clarity Moderate the Relationship between Role Ambiguity and Athlete Satisfaction?

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the need for role clarity as a potential moderator of the role ambiguity–satisfaction relationship among interdependent sport athletes. Competitive “Junior B” ice hockey players (N = 112) representing eight teams completed the Role Ambiguity Scale, five subscales of the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire, and a measure of need for role clarity at approximately the mid-point of their competitive season. Correlational findings indicated that greater role ambiguity was associated with lower athlete satisfaction. However, consistent with the moderator hypothesis, the relationships between role ambiguity and various manifestations of satisfaction were only evident for those athletes who had a higher need for role clarity. Implications of the results are discussed and several avenues for application and future research are suggested.     

Effects of modelled censure/support of media violence and need for approval on aggression

Subjects in a between-subjects design viewed a fight-filled video of ice hockey action in the company of an experimental confederate who either openly deplored, watched passively, or, supported the violence. Subjects (N = 179) subsequently completed measures of displaced aggression, aggressive mood, and social desirability. Neither measure of aggression was influenced by the confederate’s behavior. However, an individual differences analysis yielded a social desirability x remarks interaction. Subjects scoring high on social desirability displaced more aggression than lows in the confederate-supportive condition. Subjects scoring high on social desirability additionally rated the film clip as more violent, and, were more critical of violence in hockey and sports generally. The results were discussed against the background of psychological reactance theory.     

Anxiety and burnout in female collegiate ice hockey and soccer athletes

The purpose of this study was to assess whether athletes who perceived their scores on trait anxiety to be debilitative to performance also experienced higher burnout scores. 84 NCAA Division I female ice hockey and soccer athletes, ages 18 to 23 years, volunteered. Participants were given a trait version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 with an added direction scale to collect general perceptions of anxiety. They also completed the Burnout Inventory for Athletes. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance for group anxiety yielded an overall significant effect, with the Facilitative group (n = 40) reporting a lower mean burnout score. Mean intensity of cognitive anxiety was significantly higher for the Debilitative group (n = 44), while mean self-confidence intensity was significantly higher for the Facilitative group.     

Impact of Transplant-Related Stressors and Feelings of Indebtedness on Psychosocial Adjustment Following Kidney Transplantation

Forty-seven patients answered a questionnaire about stress, feelings of indebtedness toward the donor, and psychosocial adjustment following kidney transplantation. The combination of age, general life stress, and transplant-related stress explained 47% of the variance in psychosocial adjustment. Areas of adjustment most influenced by this combination of predictors included attitudes toward health care, domestic, vocational, social adjustment, and psychological distress. Younger patients endorsed higher levels of transplant-related stress and higher levels of psychological distress. Moderate to intense feelings of indebtedness toward the donor were common but were unrelated to psychosocial adjustment posttransplant.     

Adolescent athletes with learning disability display atypical maturational trajectories on concussion baseline testing: Implications based on a Finnish sample

Previous research has reported lower cognitive test scores on baseline testing in athletes reporting multiple previous concussions or a history of learning disability (LD). Age also has an important influence on cognitive performance. While these factors have been considered individually in previous studies, the present study is the first to explore the interaction of age, self-reported LD, and history of concussion on baseline Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT®) in a nationwide study of adolescent athletes. ImPACT® was administered to 1823 Finnish male ice hockey players (aged 12–21 years old) prior to the 2015–2016 or 2016–2017 playing seasons. Linear regressions and simple slopes analyses were used for clarifying the impact of LD and previous concussion history on maturational trajectories. In comparison to typically developing athletes, athletes with LD had lower neurocognitive scores in all composites and differing maturational trajectory in verbal memory and visual motor speed. The number of previous concussions did not impair neurocognitive performance at baseline assessment. Application of standard age-based norms to adolescent athletes with a history of LD has the potential to negatively skew clinical decision-making. Separate reference values for LD athletes are warranted due to their unique developmental cognitive trajectories. The reference values for the Finnish participants in this study are presented.     

Predicting moral attitudes and antisocial behavior in young team sport athletes: A self‐determination theory perspective

Identifying the factors associated with prosocial and antisocial behaviors in youth sport may provide evidence to inform interventions aimed at promoting prosocial behaviors and minimizing rule transgressions in young athletes. We investigated relations among social‐contextual factors (e.g., social support), personal motivational factors (e.g., psychological need satisfaction and motivation), young athletes’ attitudes toward prosocial (e.g., keeping winning in proportion) and antisocial (e.g., acceptance of cheating and gamesmanship) behaviors, and their actual rule violations during matches in two samples of athletes. Participants in Sample 1 were young team sport athletes (N = 355) and participants in Sample 2 were young male futsal players (N = 296). Athletes in Sample 1 completed validated self‐report measures of perceived autonomy support, basic need satisfaction, and autonomous and controlled motivation from self‐determination theory, moral attitudes, and past cheating behaviors. Athletes in Sample 2 completed identical measures and two additional behavioral measures: athletes’ self‐reported number of yellow cards received during competition in the last 6 months and the number of yellow cards athletes received from referees in the subsequent 2 months from competition records. We found significant relations between psychological need satisfaction and self‐determined motivation, and athletes’ moral attitudes in both samples. These effects held when statistically controlling for past behavior. Importantly, our prospective analysis of Sample 2 indicated that attitudes toward antisocial behaviors predicted athletes’ rule violations during subsequent tournament matches. Findings indicate that promoting autonomous motivation and need satisfaction through autonomy support may foster attitudes toward prosocial behaviors, and minimize rule transgressions, in young athletes.     

Visual skills and playing positions of Olympic field hockey players

Many sports require fine spatiotemporal resolution for optimal performance. Previous studies have compared anticipatory skills and the decision-making process in athletes; however, there is little information on visual skills of elite athletes, particularly hockey players. To assess visual skills of Olympic hockey players and analyze differences by playing position, and to analyze improvement of visual skills after training, 21 Olympic field hockey players were pre- and post-tested on 11 visual tasks following a 10-wk. visual training program consisting of computer-based visual exercises. There were no mean differences at pre-test between players of different positions, suggesting that performance on these visual skills was independent of playing position. However, after training, an improvement was seen in all players (when scores were averaged across all 11 visual tasks) with goalkeepers improving significantly more than any other position. This suggests the possibility of improving visual skills even in an elite population.     

Youth Athletes' Interpretations of Punitive Coaching Practices

This study examined the use of punitive coaching strategies in youth sport and the nature of these experiences for youth athletes. Semistructured interviews and concept maps were conducted with 12 competitive male and female hockey athletes 11–13 years of age. Data were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. Results revealed that punishments occurred in competitive youth hockey, in the forms of benching, yelling, exercises, cleaning up equipment, and alternating positions. Findings are interpreted to suggest that punishments hindered developmental needs of youth athletes, including a positive sense of self and positive relationships with others. Implications for healthy youth development are discussed.     

Anger and perceived legitimacy of aggression in male Hong Kong Chinese athletes: Effects of type of sport and level of competition

ProblemThe vast majority of research examining the interplay between aggressive emotions, beliefs, behaviors, cognitions, and situational contingencies in competitive athletes has focused on Western populations and only select sports (e.g., ice hockey). Research involving Eastern, particularly Chinese, athletes is surprisingly sparse given the sheer size of these populations. Thus, this study examines the aggressive emotions, beliefs, behaviors, and cognitions, of competitive Chinese athletes.MethodSeveral measures related to aggression were distributed to a large sample (N = 471) of male athletes, representing four sports (basketball, rugby union, association football/soccer, and squash).ResultsHigher levels of anger and aggression tended to be associated with higher levels of play for rugby and low levels of play for contact (e.g., football, basketball) and individual sports (e.g., squash).ConclusionsThe results suggest that the experience of angry emotions and aggressive behaviors of Chinese athletes are similar to Western populations, but that sport psychology practitioners should be aware of some potentially important differences, such as the general tendency of Chinese athletes to disapprove of aggressive behavior.     

Expertise and its embodiment: Examining the impact of sensorimotor skill expertise on the representation of action-related text

In two experiments, we explored how novice and expert athletes represent the everyday and sportspecific objects and actions that they read about. Novice and expert ice hockey players (Experiment 1) and football players (Experiment 2) read sentences describing everyday or sport-specific situations and then judged whether a pictured item (either matching the action implied in the previous sentence or not) was mentioned in the preceding sentence. The sentences in Experiment 1 consisted of everyday and hockey-specific scenarios. The sentences in Experiment 2 depicted football scenarios implying football-specific or non—football-specific actions anyone might perform. Everyone responded most quickly to items that matched the sentence-implied actions for everyday and non—sport-specific actions. Only athletes showed this effect for their respective sport-specific scenarios. Differentiating between the same item in different action orientations is thought to be driven by embodied knowledge containing the sensorimotor characteristics of what one is reading about. We show that possessing this type of representation depends on experience interacting with objects and performing the actions in question.