自由回忆中元记忆监控的作用及其影响因素

采用“类信号检测论方法”,通过两个实验,研究了在记忆信息提取过程中元记忆的预见性监测判断（Feeling-of-knowing）和元控制的作用及其影响因素。实验一探讨了识记材料的难易、识记遍数对元监测判断以及输出控制中的反应标准是否有影响;实验二探讨了严格和宽松的奖惩条件对输出控制中反应标准的影响。用计算机随机呈现识记用的词表材料,识记之后让被试进行FOK等级判断和自由回忆,再用“类信号检测论”方法统计实验数据,分析各种条件下回忆成绩、FOK判断等级,计算出相应的符合率和反应标准。实验一结果表明,不同材料难度和识记遍数下的回忆成绩和FOK判断等级差异显著,但输出控制中的反应标准值没受这些因素的影响;实验二结果是严格和宽松奖惩条件下的反应标准值差异显著,严格条件下的反应标准显著高于宽松条件下的反应标准,表明奖惩条件对信息提取中的反应标准有显著影响     

上下文熟悉效应对元记忆监测和记忆的影响

在认知任务中,伴随编码和检索的外围信息被称为上下文,其本身并不是编码或检索的目标。如果学习时的上下文在其后进行提取时重复出现,不管是否对应之前的学习项目,都会增加个体再认正确的概率。这种由于上下文增强项目熟悉感而促进记忆效果的现象就称为上下文熟悉效应。本研究通过两个实验探究上下文熟悉效应对元记忆监测及记忆的影响机制。其中,元记忆监测是以学习判断和信心判断为指标。记忆成绩则是以再认正确率为指标。研究结果显示:第一,上下文熟悉效应影响元记忆监测:学习判断等级上,恢复条件显著高于新条件,且不受任务难度影响; 信心判断等级上,简单任务时恢复条件与新条件无显著差异,困难任务时恢复条件显著高于新条件。第二,上下文熟悉效应影响记忆成绩:再认成绩上,简单任务时新条件显著高于恢复条件; 困难任务时恢复条件显著高于新条件。研究得出结论:上下文熟悉效应对元记忆监测和记忆都有显著影响,任务难度起调节作用。     

小学儿童学习时间分配决策水平的发展

利用自由回忆,线索回忆和再认三种提取方式,以儿童任务难度预见（EOL）的判断等级与学习时间分配之间的G相关值作为指标,考察了小学儿童学习时间分配决策水平的发展过程。小学2、4、6年级儿童和成人大学生(作为对照)参与本研究,每个年龄组各24人。主要研究结果表明：（1）总体而言,小学各年级儿童,其学习时间分配的决策都受对任务难度预见等级的制约,对EOL判断等级越高的项目,分配的学习时间越长,说明小学儿童具有一定程度的学习时间分配的决策能力;（2）在自由回忆条件下,小学4年级和小学6年级儿童对EOL的判断等级与学习时间之间的G相关值差异显著,表明儿童的决策水平由小学4年级到小学6年级表现出快速发展的趋势;（3）在线索回忆的条件下,小学2年级和4年级儿童G相关值有显著差异,表明决策水平由小学2年级到小学4年级之间有快速发展的趋势;（4）在再认的条件下,小学各年龄儿童学习时间分配的决策水平没有显著性差异,表明再认条件下小学阶段的决策水平进步不显著;（5）在三种提取方式下,小学儿童对任务难度预见判断等级与首次学习时间之间的G相关值都不同程度地低于与总的学习时间之间的相关值。这说明小学儿童在反复学习的过程中在不断调整自己的学习时间分配,调整的程度有随年龄增长而加大的趋势。小学6年级儿童在任务难度预见判断等级与学习时间之间的G相关值已接近成人水平。     

项目的激活强度与元记忆判断

本实验采用不同于国外由Ｈａｒｔ首创的ＦＯＫ（Ｆｅｅｌｌｉｎｇ－ｏｆ－Ｋｎｏｗｉｎｇ）研究方法的新方法──模糊再认判断法（Ｆｕｚｚｙ－Ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｏｎｊｕｄｇｅｍｅｎｔ,简称ＦＲ）来研究无记忆判断及其产生机制．实验中安排了范畴判断与字词识记相结合,造成四种不同激活强度的字词,让被试对其进行ＦＲ判断,并用迫选再认作为标准测验进行验证．结果表明,范畴判断的语义激活增强了字词的激活强度,从而影响ＦＲ判断的等级．识记项目的激活强度愈高,相应的ＦＲ判断等级也愈高．     

FOK判断与可接近信息之间的关系

通过三个实验,用语义联想集大小不同的中文单字词研究了靶项目联想集的大小与FOK判断等级和准确性的关系。实验一通过两种不同联想集大小的靶子,比较外显的、提取出的信息和内隐的、语义网络中固有的被激活信息量对FOK判断等级和FOK判断准确性是否有不同的影响。实验二和实验三通过不同的靶子呈现时间和学习遍数,比较不同的识记强度对不同大小联想集的靶子的FOK判断等级和FOK判断准确性的影响。实验结果表明：FOK判断等级随外显的、提取出的信息总量的增多而增高,随内隐的、语义网络中固有的被激活信息量的增多而降低。FOK判断准确性随靶子本身的激活强度的增强而增高,随内隐的、语义网络中固有的被激活信息的激活强度的增强而降低,FOK判断准确性取决于这两种激活强度的综合作用。     

词频和年级对FOK判断的影响

本实验以识记材料的词频高低和被试年级为自变量对被试元记忆监测的FOK(feeling of knowing)判断进行研究。实验采用Hart提出的RJR(回忆—FOK判断—标准测验 )的经典范式。结果表明 :被试的年级影响FOK判断等级和准确性 ,大学生的FOK判断等级和准确性均高于高一年级学生 ;识记材料词频影响FOK判断等级的高低 ,不影响FOK判断准确性 ,被试对高频词对的FOK判断等级高于对低频词对的FOK判断等级 ,但FOK判断准确性无明显差异。     

高难度材料的元记忆监测更受记忆广度的制约

以不同难度(有、无意义联系)的两种中文词对为记忆材料,随机选取在校大学生200名,采用经典的回忆-判断-再认(recall-judgement-recognition,RJR)范式,考察短时记忆广度和一般自我效能感对个体在不同难度材料上元记忆监测的影响。结果发现,相比于无意义联系的材料,个体在有意义联系的材料上,JOL、FOK和JOC判断等级更高,线索回忆测验成绩更好。但是,个体在不同材料上的JOL判断和线索回忆受短时记忆广度的调节。不同短时记忆广度的个体在有意义联系材料上的JOL判断等级和线索回忆测验成绩无显著差异,但是在无意义联系材料上,高短时记忆广度个体的JOL判断等级和线索回忆测验成绩均显著高于低短时记忆广度个体。同时,相关分析结果也发现,相比于低短时记忆广度的个体,高短时记忆广度的个体,其线索回忆测验成绩和再认测验成绩与JOL、FOK和JOC判断等级之间更加相关。实验结果表明,作为一种人格变量,一般自我效能感对个体元记忆监测的影响可能并不明显。而短时记忆广度,很大程度上反映了个体的记忆能力,是个体元记忆监测的一个重要影响因素,尤其是对难度较大的材料。     

嗓音源判断过程中的范畴效应和通道效应

该项研究通过设计4种实验条件,旨在探讨不同嗓音词的再认和嗓音判断过程各自的特点及其相互联系。4种实验条件是由2种诵读方式和2种测试方式组合而成,2种诵读方式为同范畴同嗓音和同范畴异嗓音,2种测试方式为视觉呈现和听觉呈现。52名大学生被试随机分成4个独立的组,分别接受一种实验处理。实验结果显示：(1)同范畴同嗓音条件与同范畴异嗓音条件相比,前者项目词的嗓音源判断效果好。提示增加相同记忆源项目间语义联系将有利于记忆源的检测判断。(2)项目再认与项目嗓音判断结果不完全一致,只有在诵读方式为同范畴同嗓音测试方式为听觉呈现情境下,两者有较高的正相关。(3)在同范畴同嗓音诵读条件下,再认反映出学习和测试通道源一致性优势效应,嗓音判断没有反映出通道源一致性优势效应。     

预警和呈现时间对错误再认和错误回忆的影响

采用DRM范式,通过两个实验探讨了学习阶段的预警和词表呈现时间对错误再认与错误回忆的影响异同以及其发生作用的可能条件.采用视觉-视觉通道的学习-测验模式,实验1使用再认测验,结果发现呈现时间对错误再认不存在影响,而预警提示有效地降低了错误再认;实验2使用回忆测验,依然没有发现呈现时间对错误回忆的影响效应,预警的效应也消失.以上结果表明:(1)预警对错误回忆的影响受到编码时呈现通道的影响,视觉编码条件下预警效果甚微,而错误再认则无此通道效应;(2)呈现时间的较大变化可同时促进激活与监测过程,错误记忆效应的大小是激活与监测双加工过程此消彼长的交互作用结果.     

“知道自己知道”与“知道自己不知道”——一项有关知道感（FOK）的脑成像研究

采用事件相关功能性磁共振成像技术（event-related fMRI）以及在FOK（feeling-of-knowing）研究中常用的“线索回忆-FOK判断-再认测验”（Recall-Judgment-Recognition,RJR）程序,以汉字词对为识记材料,研究了FOK判断中的大脑活动区域。根据FOK判断的正负以及其后的再认测验的对错,实验将FOK判断的项目分为四类：PP项目（正性FOK判断,正确再认）,NN（负性FOK判断,错误再认）,NP（负性FOK判断,正确再认）以及PN（正性FOK判断,错误再认）。脑成像的分析结果显示：准确的FOK预测（即PP与NN项目）与不准确的FOK预测（即NP与NP项目）在脑活动上没有显著的差异。而进一步分析表明,这种“无差异”的现象可能是由于PP项目与NN项目激活了不同的脑活动模式所造成的。具体地讲,相对于NN项目而言,PP项目伴随有明显的左侧前额叶（BA 8区）的活动。这一观察提示我们：知道感（PP）与不知道感（NN）可能是由不同的脑神经网络所支持、并通过不同的认知过程来实现的。     

学习困难儿童的元记忆监测与控制特点

以有无意义联系的两种中文词对为材料,采用2×3×2混合实验设计,对小学三到五年级学习困难儿童的元记忆监测、控制水平与学优儿童之间的差异及其发展特点进行研究。结果表明：1．学习困难儿童在三种元记忆监测判断等级上均显著低于学优儿童。2．学习困难儿童具有元记忆控制能力,但其控制水平相对低于学优儿童。3．学习困难儿童的元记忆监测判断和学习时间分配之间存在交互影响。4．学习困难儿童的元记忆监测和控制水平存在较为复杂的发展特点。据此得出结论认为,学习困难儿童的元记忆监测与控制能力都比学优儿童差,同时也表现出一定的发展趋势。     

Does an instruction to forget enhance memory for other presented items?

In an item-method directed forgetting paradigm, participants were required to attend to one of two colored words presented on opposite sides of a central fixation stimulus; they were instructed to Remember or Forget the attended item. On a subsequent recognition test, the Attended words showed a typical directed forgetting effect with better recognition of Remember words than Forget words. Our interest was in the fate of the Unattended words. When the study display disappeared before the memory instruction, there was no effect of that instruction on unattended words; when the study display remained visible during presentation of the memory instruction, there was a reverse directed forgetting effect with better recognition of unattended words from Forget trials than from Remember trials. Incidental encoding of task-irrelevant stimuli occurs following presentation of a Forget instruction - but only when those task-irrelevant stimuli are still visible in the external environment.     

Judgments of recency and their relation to recognition memory

Subjects went through a list of 550 high- and low-frequency words (Experiment 1) or concrete and abstract words (Experiment 2) in which individual items were repeated at lags of 5 to 30 other items. They made old versus new recognition decisions on each word and followed each "old" response with a numerical judgment of recency (JOR). Recognition judgments displayed the mirror effect. Conditionalized on recognition, JORs were shorter for low-frequency words than for high-frequency words, and shorter for concrete words than for abstract words. This was true at every lag, suggesting that recognition and JOR may have a common basis. However, recognition confidence ratings obtained in Experiment 3 proved much less sensitive than JOR to test lag. Memory models applicable to multiple judgment tasks will be needed to account for such findings.     

编码意识对注意促进效应的影响——基于R/K范式的研究

注意促进效应指学习阶段采用目标探测性质的二级任务,不仅不会降低同时呈现的背景信息的编码加工,反而会促进其记忆。为进一步探究对背景信息的编码意识是否会影响该效应,本研究设置了有意与无意两种编码条件,并引入“记得/知道”判断进一步将再认区分为回想和熟悉性。结果表明,无意编码下也会产生ABE,但不同的编码条件下,目标探测所促进的背景信息的编码加工存在差异。有意编码条件下,目标探测促进的更多是对背景信息的精细加工,而无意编码条件下,目标探测促进的更多是对背景信息的知觉加工。     

注意促进效应的ERP研究

近期发现,采用目标探测任务作为二级任务时,目标探测条件不仅不会削弱,甚至会提高记忆成绩,产生注意促进效应（ABE）。为进一步探究目标探测的作用机制,研究采用事件相关电位（ERP）技术,对比目标与分心条件在编码和提取过程中所诱发的ERP差异。结果表明,两类条件在再认过程中所诱发的ERP差异不仅表现在早期与知觉加工相关的ERP成份上,并且一直持续到了后期与细节提取相关的ERP成分上。由此推测,ABE不仅体现在编码早期的知觉加工阶段,更会延续到后期的复述与精加工。     

Directed forgetting in the list method affects recognition memory for source

The effects of list-method directed forgetting on recognition memory were explored. In Experiment 1 (N = 40), observers were instructed to remember words and their type-cases; in Experiment 2 (N = 80), the instruction was to remember words and their colours. Two lists of 10 words were presented; after the first list, half of the observers (forget) were instructed to forget that list, and the other half (remember) were not given the forget instruction. Recognition of items (words) as well as source (encoding list + case/colour) was measured for forget and remember observers. The forget instruction affected case/colour memory more consistently than item and list memory; a multinomial analysis indicated that source information was affected by the forget instructions. The results indicated that recognition of source information may be a more sensitive indicator of forgetting than recognition of items.     

The role of duration in memory and metamemory of enacted instructions (SPTs)

Summary Subjects enacted two series of tasks as instructed (subject-performed tasks, or SPTs). The enactions were of either short (5-s) or long (30-s) duration. The long en actions were either repetitive (e.g.,bounce a ball several times) or else nonrepetitive (e. g.,stand up, walk round the room, open the door, look out, close the door, sit down). During presentation, subjects were to rate the probability of recall of each SPT in a subsequent free-recall test. The long SPTs were given higher recall ratings than the short SPTs, but the subjects did not differentiate between the repetitive and the nonrepetitive items. Recall mirrored the ratings; the long SPTs were recalled more frequently than the short ones, with no difference between the repetitive and the nonrepetitive items. The metamemory results are discussed in relation to the notion that the memory-monitoring system is sensitive to quantitative, but not to qualitative, differences in encoding.     

False recognition following study of semantically related lists presented in jumbled word form

Three experiments explored a jumbled word effect in false recognition. Lists of theme-related items were presented in word or nonword form. Results indicated that critical lures semantically related to studied items were falsely recognised regardless of whether they were presented as words or nonwords. High false recognition rates to either SLEEP or SELEP following study of an appropriate theme list of items in nonword form should only occur if nonwords are recoded at study. With study conditions conducive to recoding, jumbled words induced false recognitions based on semantic associations among their respective base words. Disrupting a recoding process by creating “difficult” letter rearrangements for jumbled words (Experiment 2) appeared to eliminate the false recognition effect. In Experiment 3, presentation durations ranged from 110 ms to 880 ms. Although there was little evidence of a semantic false recognition effect at the fastest presentation rate, the brief durations appeared to be effective in eliminating the effect when items were studied in nonword form. These results appear to be consistent with an encoding activation/retrieval monitoring model.     

False recognition following study of semantically related lists presented in jumbled word form

Three experiments explored a jumbled word effect in false recognition. Lists of theme-related items were presented in word or nonword form. Results indicated that critical lures semantically related to studied items were falsely recognised regardless of whether they were presented as words or nonwords. High false recognition rates to either SLEEP or SELEP following study of an appropriate theme list of items in nonword form should only occur if nonwords are recoded at study. With study conditions conducive to recoding, jumbled words induced false recognitions based on semantic associations among their respective base words. Disrupting a recoding process by creating "difficult" letter rearrangements for jumbled words (Experiment 2) appeared to eliminate the false recognition effect. In Experiment 3, presentation durations ranged from 110 ms to 880 ms. Although there was little evidence of a semantic false recognition effect at the fastest presentation rate, the brief durations appeared to be effective in eliminating the effect when items were studied in nonword form. These results appear to be consistent with an encoding activation/retrieval monitoring model.