时间隐喻中的空间参照框架

在时间隐喻研究早期, 研究者多将时间隐喻分为“自我移动”和“时间移动”两类, 关注的是“自我移动”和“物体移动”空间参照框架向时间概念的系统映射。最近, 有研究者在语料分析的基础上, 提出了由其他空间参照框架映射而来的新的时间参照系, 并确立了新的理论, 其中以自我参照点和时间参照点理论、三大参照系理论最具代表性。文章对“自我移动”和“时间移动”隐喻方面的最新研究及目前空间-时间隐喻方面一些新的参照点/系理论和相关实证研究进行了述评。     

Frames of Reference and Antecedentless Anaphora in Spanish Conversation

This study examines native Spanish speakers’ use of anaphoric pronouns and null subjects in conversational discourse in the absence of coreferential antecedents. It also considers the adequacy of Gundel et al.’s proposal  (Language 69(2):274–307, 1993) that the cognitive status “in focus” corresponds with speakers’ use of minimal referring expressions (i.e., unstressed pronouns and zeros). Analysis of naturally occurring Spanish conversation shows how the felicitous use and interpretation of non-canonical (antecedentless) anaphoric pronouns and null subjects are possible due to the activation of underlying cognitive frames that are shared by the interlocutors. Furthermore, the speaker’s mention of a referent, dubbed a “neighborhood antecedent” by Langacker (Conceptual grouping and pronominal anaphora, in: Fox (ed) Studies in anaphora, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996), and the information “filled in” over the course of the conversation on account of the activation of relevant cognitive frames, both license and disambiguate the non-canonical anaphoric relations.     

Landmark Frames of Reference in Interactive Route Description Tasks

The current study investigated the use of frames of reference in an asymmetrical spatial dialogue task. Participants navigated through a real environment by following instructions provided by other participants guiding them over the phone. The dialogues were transcribed and analysed to locate the introduction of landmarks. We examined which frames of reference were used to introduce these landmarks and how far their use was determined by each participant's role within the dyads (i.e. guide vs. guided person). Results revealed that both partners contributed to the dialogue by introducing landmarks. However, the guides introduced more landmarks than the guided persons and were also more likely to use perspective taking when doing so. These results are discussed in the light of perspective taking and collaboration in dialogue. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

参照系冲突对表象更新的影响

以三维场景图片为学习材料,通过系统操纵参照系之间的冲突,在四个实验中考察了两种不同表象更新任务的参照系冲突效应。结果发现：（1）参照系冲突对以自我为中心的表象更新有显著影响,但对以场景为中心的表象更新影响相对较小,从而导致以自我为中心表象更新相对于以场景为中心的表象更新的优势效应减小直至消失。（2）旋转者身体倾斜与场景倾斜引发的参照系冲突效应具有不对等性：由于整个场景倾斜引发的参照系冲突效应大于由于旋转者身体倾斜引发的参照系冲突效应。（3）与场景同时倾斜的局部空间参照系降低了以场景为中心表象更新任务的参照系冲突效应,但对以自我为中心表象更新任务的参照系冲突效应没有影响。这些结果表明两种表象更新任务具有不同的认知加工机制,并进一步扩展了Presson等提出的空间更新参照系冲突模型     

Using Relaxation Techniques with Individuals and with Groups

The use of biofeedback, meditation, deep breathing relaxation, and imagery relaxation with individuals and with groups is described. The physical and mental well-being of people depends on learning ways to relax. Relaxation techniques reduce high levels of stress by facilitating the mind to switch from dwelling on day-to-day concerns to instead dwcll on relaxing themes. The body always responds to thinking processes; when the mind switches from dwellir~g on distressing thoughts to relaxing thoughts, the body becomes more relaxed.     

Comparison of Allocations by Individuals and Interacting Groups in an Escalation of Commitment Situation1

In this study, individuals and interacting 3‐person groups were asked to make a series of allocation decisions using a modified version of the A&S decision case (Staw, 1976). Based on the choice‐shift effect, it was hypothesized that groups would allocate more to a failing course of action than would individuals, and that these differences would emerge only after repeated sequential decisions. Both hypotheses were supported. These findings suggest that processes unique to groups account for the greater allocations of groups, relative to individuals in escalation situations. The implications of these findings in applied settings are discussed.     

空间参照体系对心理旋转的影响

人类视觉系统不仅运用多重参照体系来建构客体的空间位置表征,也运用这些参照体系进行空间表征的动力转换.本研究采用实验方法,在心理旋转任务中对想象空间自我中心参照体系和客体中心参照体系的转换策略进行对比研究.实验结果表明:空间参照体系对心理旋转产生显著影响,自我中心参照体系转换易于客体中心参照体系转换,即存在心理旋转的视者优势.     

返回抑制的空间、视网膜和客体参照系

返回抑制是指当刺激出现在先前注意过的位置(或客体)时,人们的加工效率降低的一种抑制性注意机制。该注意机制对个体有适应性价值,它能够降低注意返回先前注意过的位置(或客体)的概率(PosnerCohen,1984),从而提高视觉采样(或搜索)的效率(Klein,1988)。返回抑制的参照系是返回抑制领域的重要理论问题。先前研究发现返回抑制的参照系可以是视网膜、空间和客体。本文介绍了返回抑制参照系研究的实验范式以及相关的行为、脑损伤及神经影像发现。此外,本文还就未来研究的方向和应该注意的问题进行了探讨。     

Space in Hand and Mind: Gesture and Spatial Frames of Reference in Bilingual Mexico

Speakers of many languages prefer allocentric frames of reference (FoRs) when talking about small-scale space, using words like “east” or “downhill.” Ethnographic work has suggested that this preference is also reflected in how such speakers gesture. Here, we investigate this possibility with a field experiment in Juchitán, Mexico. In Juchitán, a preferentially allocentric language (Isthmus Zapotec) coexists with a preferentially egocentric one (Spanish). Using a novel task, we elicited spontaneous co-speech gestures about small-scale motion events (e.g., toppling blocks) in Zapotec-dominant speakers and in balanced Zapotec-Spanish bilinguals. Consistent with prior claims, speakers’ spontaneous gestures reliably reflected either an egocentric or allocentric FoR. The use of the egocentric FoR was predicted—not by speakers’ dominant language or the language they used in the task—but by mastery of words for “right” and “left,” as well as by properties of the event they were describing. Additionally, use of the egocentric FoR in gesture predicted its use in a separate nonlinguistic memory task, suggesting a cohesive cognitive style. Our results show that the use of spatial FoRs in gesture is pervasive, systematic, and shaped by several factors. Spatial gestures, like other forms of spatial conceptualization, are thus best understood within broader ecologies of communication and cognition.     

Professional Experience and Referencing Context Explain Variance in Use of Spatial Frames of Reference

The location of objects in relation to other objects can be perceived of and communicated in different ways. Assuming that variance in spatial Frame of Reference (FoR) use may be explained by practical professional requirements, we reasoned that medical professionals may increasingly use the intrinsic FoR which because of its observer‐independence is less prone to misunderstandings than relative FoRs. We compared FoR‐use of beginner and advanced medical students (n = 142) to that of law students (n = 191) using 40 ambiguous referencing tasks. We found that medical students applied the intrinsic FoR more frequently than law students in a medical yet not in a generic context. Beginners did not differ from advanced students. Within contexts, individuals were highly consistent in their FoR‐use. Investigation of latencies indicates that processing of the intrinsic FoR becomes easier with practice. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceptions of Brainstorming in Groups: The Quality Over Quantity Hypothesis

Our research focused on the implicit beliefs of potential brainstormers about the possible outcomes of brainstorming. We conducted four studies to assess the relative importance of quality and quantity as goals of brainstorming. In Study 1, we found evidence for a quality over quantity hypothesis: participants indicated that it was more important to produce creative, original, and high quality ideas than to generate a large number of ideas. In Studies 2 and 3, participants displayed support for the quality over quantity hypothesis by showing in group favoritism for a quality dimension but not a quantity dimension. Study 4 showed that participants believed brain-storming would enhance the quality of others' ideas more than one's own ideas, but they did not display a similar bias about idea quantity.     

The Underlying Theory: Drawn from Experience with Individuals and Groups

This article is based on a presentation Carl made at the University of California, Irvine, on November 8, 1986. Carl focuses on the conditions that facilitate change—both in individuals and groups. Carl connects his theory of personal change with the process for achieving peace.     

Age Effects of Frames of Reference in Self-Reports of Health,Well-Being,Fatigue and Pain

Self-reports of health and well-being are central for population monitoring, so it is paramount that they are measured accurately. The goal of this study was to examine the impact of age on the use of the comparison standards or frames of reference (FoRs) in self-reports of health, life-satisfaction, fatigue, and pain, and to determine if the age-health outcome associations were affected by age differences in FoRs. Respondents (n = 2000) selected from the U.S. general population self-rated their life-satisfaction and health outcomes. Following this, they were asked to indicate if they used any comparisons (FoRs) when making their rating and the direction of these comparisons (upward, lateral or downward). Analyses examined (a) whether age groups differed in the type and direction of FoRs, and (b) whether age patterns in health, life-satisfaction, fatigue, and pain were altered when FoRs were statistically controlled. Compared to middle-aged and older people, younger respondents were more likely to compare themselves with other people when self-rating their health and life-satisfaction. They were also more likely to use a hypothetical situation when evaluating their pain and fatigue. Younger participants used lateral comparisons less often and downward comparisons more often than middle-aged and older participants. When these age differences in FoRs were statistically controlled, the observed age patterns in self-reported health outcomes were somewhat reduced. The results show that people of different ages use different FoRs when self-reporting their life-satisfaction and health outcomes.

     

Frames of Reference for Human Perceptual-Motor Coordination: Space-Based Versus Joint-Based Adaptation

In this study, the authors addressed the issue of whether space-based motor planning occurs at a higher, equal, or lower level of central nervous system control than joint-based motor planning by using a computerized adaptation paradigm. Visual displays of participants' (N = 32) reaching movements to spatial targets were distorted either with respect to spatial hand displacements (space-based distortion) or with respect to joint angle displacements (joint-based distortion). Participants adapted more easily to space-based distortion than to joint-based distortion. The results suggest that when the participants were confronted with new visuomotor mappings, they aimed for virtual spatial targets whose positions were adjusted to compensate for the distortions associated with the new mappings. That strategy was preferred over a joint- or posture-based strategy, in which a posture is selected for the displayed spatial target and is then modified so that the new mapping between adopted and seen positions can be accommodated. The results support the widely held view that space-based planning occurs at a higher level than joint-based planning.     

A Comparison of Hindsight Bias in Groups and Individuals: The Moderating Role of Plausibility

We compared the magnitude of the hindsight bias in individuals and groups with the prediction that the plausibility of an outcome would affect the magnitude of the group–individual difference. We provided groups and individuals with outcomes of scientific studies, and asked them to predict the probability of those outcomes as if they did not know the given outcomes and to report their level of surprise at the outcomes. Overall, groups were more prone to hindsight bias than were individuals, but the group–individual difference was present only when the given outcomes were relatively implausible (Study 1). Moreover, this difference was not eliminated even when participants were asked to consider alternative outcomes (Study 2). Implications are discussed.     

A Study of the Effects of Different Frames of Reference on FIRO-B Scores

The purpose of this study was to investigate possible differences in FIRO-B scores in relation to two frames of reference: 'home' and 'work'. The test was administered to thirty postgraduate students on two separate occasions. Subsequent analysis showed scores on five of the six dimensions to be significantly different. It is suggested that these results have implications for the reliability of the test, and also for its use in guidance and counselling.