Analyzing anger: how to make people mad

Does simple displeasure cause anger without appraisals or agency attributions? The authors offer 8 observations: (a) Appraisal theory also predicts that displeasure promotes anger, (b) An emotion of frustration can be usefully distinguished from anger, (c) Aggressive reactions to norm violations among animals suggest that they too distinguish bad behavior from bad outcomes, (d) Attributions to agency are perceptual and automatic in social situations, (e) It is tenuous to argue that agency attributions are enacted in angry aggression, but absent in anger elicitation. (f) The contextualized meanings of expressive movements, rather than movements themselves, elicit emotion, (g) Expressions may be better seen as constituents than as causes of emotions, (h) Cognitive components of emotion generally come before, not after, eliciting events.     

Conjoint marital therapy to enhance anger management and reduce spouse abuse

Abstract

This paper describes a treatment program for couples who mishandle anger and/or are physically abusive. Based on a social learning conception of marital aggression, the treatment endorses the elimination of demonstrations of anger in abusive couples and elaborates upon ways to identify preliminary anger cues, to establish a ground rule that abusiveness is unacceptable, to develop alternative responses that interrupt conflict patterns, and to modify faulty relationship assumptions. Methods to improve couples' problem-solving skills and to enhance their overall enjoyment of the relationship are also proposed as important supplements to the training in anger management skills.     

Beliefs about obsessional thoughts

Recent cognitive-behavioral formulations of obsessive-compulsive disorder postulate that intrusive or obsessional thoughts are subject to appraisal. Extreme beliefs about the occurrence and meaning of intrusive thoughts direct appraisal, thus causing marked distress and subjective responsibility which may lead to neutralizing activity. A brief self-report belief inventory was developed from a 92-item pool to assess extreme beliefs concerning intrusive thoughts and responsibility, the control of such thoughts and their possible consequences, and the appropriateness of guilt and neutralizing behavior as a response. The inventory was developed sequentially on two nonclinical samples (N=125, N=265) to distinguish between neutralizing and nonneutralizing subjects. Initial psychometric data for the final instrument were obtained for two further nonclinical samples (N=61, N=50) along with a sample of OCD patients and a matched control group. The instrument showed satisfactory reliability and evidence of criterion, convergent, discriminant, and factorial validity. Finally, data from a heterogeneous outpatient medical sample (N=299) was used to test the relationship among obsessive-compulsive symptoms, mood state, and beliefs. The implications of these results for contemporary models of obsessive-compulsive disorder are discussed.     

The driving anger expression inventory: a measure of how people express their anger on the road

Four ways people express their anger when driving were identified. Verbal Aggressive Expression (alpha=0.88) assesses verbally aggressive expression of anger (e.g., yelling or cursing at another driver); Personal Physical Aggressive Expression (alpha=0.81), the ways the person uses him/herself to express anger (e.g., trying to get out and tell off or have a physical fight with another driver); Use of the Vehicle to Express Anger (alpha=0.86), the ways the person uses his/her vehicle to express anger (e.g., flashing lights at or cutting another driver off in anger); and Adaptive/Constructive Expression (alpha=0.90), the ways the person copes positively with anger (e.g., focuses on safe driving or tries to relax). Aggressive forms can be summed into Total Aggressive Expression Index (alpha=0.90). Aggressive forms of expression correlated positively with each other (rs=0.39-0.48), but were uncorrelated or correlated negatively with adaptive/constructive expression (rs=-0.02 to -0.22). Aggressive forms of anger expression correlated positively with driving-related anger, aggression, and risky behavior; adaptive/constructive expression tended to correlate negatively with these variables. Differences in the strengths of correlations and regression analyses supported discriminant and incremental validity and suggested forms of anger expression contributed differentially to understanding driving-related behaviors. Theoretical and treatment implications were explored.     

Response to Hanks and McDermott: Temporal Evolution of Beliefs and Beliefs about Temporal Evolution

This paper critically evaluates the celebrated paper of Hanks and McDermott on temporal projection, non-monotonic reasoning, and the frame problem. First I argue against their intuitions, and a fortiori, against their proposed solution. Next, I suggest how the solution they desire could be obtained, were they willing to represent the problem a bit differently.     

Subjective probability intervals: how to reduce overconfidence by interval evaluation

Format dependence implies that assessment of the same subjective probability distribution produces different conclusions about over- or underconfidence depending on the assessment format. In 2 experiments, the authors demonstrate that the overconfidence bias that occurs when participants produce intervals for an uncertain quantity is almost abolished when they evaluate the probability that the same intervals include the quantity. The authors successfully apply a method for adaptive adjustment of probability intervals as a debiasing tool and discuss a tentative explanation in terms of a naive sampling model. According to this view, people report their experiences accurately, but they are naive in that they treat both sample proportion and sample dispersion as unbiased estimators, yielding small bias in probability evaluation but strong bias in interval production.     

Beliefs about personality change and continuity

Lay conceptions of personality change and continuity were examined in a sample of 112 undergraduates. Participants rated their personal change over 5 years (past or future), the change they perceived to be normative over 10-year age spans between 15 and 65, their beliefs about whether personality is fixed or malleable (“lay theories”) and their beliefs about the causes of personality change and continuity. Beliefs about normative personality change generally corresponded to research evidence on adult trajectories of the Big Five factors, with some age bias, whereas recalled and anticipated personal change tended to be more positive than these norms. Participants tended to endorse environmental causes more for personality change than for continuity. Lay theories were not consistently associated with these causal beliefs, or with beliefs about personal and normative change.     

Beliefs about female and male nonverbal communication

Participants (N= 441) rated from 1 to 10 how frequently or well they believed hypothetical women and men performed each of twenty nonverbal behaviors or skills. Women were believed to use more expressive and involved nonverbal behaviors than men, and to be more skilled at sending and receiving nonverbal messages. Men were believed to be louder and more interruptive, and to display more nervous, dysfluent behaviors. Ratings given to females by females were higher than were ratings in the other gender combinations for over half the variables, which may accurately describe female—female interaction. Perceived gender differences correlated positively with differences reported in observational studies, indicating that beliefs about nonverbal gender differences were generally accurate. The authors wish to thank Tom Leahy for his assistance in data collection.     

Blinded by anger or feeling the love: how emotions influence advice taking

Across 2 experiments, the authors demonstrate that emotional states influence how receptive people are to advice. The focus of these experiments is on incidental emotions, emotions triggered by a prior experience that is irrelevant to the current situation. The authors demonstrate that people who feel incidental gratitude are more trusting and more receptive to advice than are people in a neutral emotional state, and people in a neutral state are more trusting and more receptive to advice than are people who feel incidental anger. In these experiments, greater receptivity to advice increased judgment accuracy. People who felt incidental gratitude were more accurate than were people in a neutral state, and people in a neutral state were more accurate than were people who felt incidental anger. The results offer insight into how people use advice, and the authors identify conditions under which leaders, policy makers, and advisors may be particularly influential.     

The Culture Specificity of Epistemological Beliefs about Learning

The present study analyzed the nature of epistemological beliefs about learning (learning beliefs) in Korea and the United States. Learning beliefs are implicit assumptions held by learners about the source and certainty of knowledge and the ways to obtain knowledge. For the comparative analysis of both the model and the nature of learning beliefs across two countries that differ in emphasis on individualism and collectivism, two attempts were made. First, Jehng, Johnson, and Anderson's (1993) study was replicated with university students from the US (N=496) and Korea (N=487). Second, the relationship between US students' learning beliefs and the two aspects of their self-construal (independent and interdependent) was analyzed by using a scale developed by Singelis (1994) which measures cultural orientation of individualism and collectivism at the individual level. Factor analyses of the US sample confirmed the conceptual model proposed by Jehng et al. The factor structure of the Korean sample, however, showed significant variation reflecting the collectivistic values of Korea. MANCOVA indicated that the two developmental factors, age and the amount of formal education, were related with American students' beliefs, but they were not with those of Korean students. MANCOVA revealed that US students' beliefs are significantly related with the independent self-construal, but not with the interdependent self-construal. The differences between the two samples in terms of the impact of formal education and self-construal on learning beliefs will be further discussed by focusing on the cultural differences between the two countries.     

Type A behavior,anger expression,and reactions to anger imagery

The experiment investigated the effects of Type A behavior, anger expression, and gender on perceptions of control and heart rate. Jenkins Activity Survey defined Type A and B subjects, categorized as either high or low in anger expression, were asked to recall, image, and generate self-referent statements about angry situations. State anger and heart rate were measured during all of the anger induction conditions, and ratings of imagery vividness and perceptions of control for self and others were taken following the recalled and imaged anger conditions. The results, with both the heart rate and self-report measures, indicated that the effects of the independent variables were interactive and situationally dependent. Type A behavior was associated with increased heart rate in two experimental conditions (mood anger and recalled anger), and, in one instance, this effect was amplified in male subjects (recalled anger). The self-report results yielded interactional effects that most commonly took the form of high anger expression, with male Type A's providing higher ratings of state anger, more vivid anger imagery, and lower perceived self-control ratings than did other categories of subjects. Taken together, these results suggest that anger expressiveness, particularly among males, amplifies the usual reactions attributed to Type A's, and that such effects are mediated by the threat of loss of control. Further, the observed interactive relationships limit the generalizability of A/B differences and raise definitional questions about Type A behavior.     

Implicit theories about interrelations of anger components in 25 countries

We were interested in the cross-cultural comparison of implicit theories of the interrelations of eight anger components (antecedents, body sensations, cognitive reactions, verbal expressions, nonverbal expressions, interpersonal responses, and primary and secondary self-control). Self-report scales of each of these components were administered to a total of 5,006 college students in 25 countries. Equivalence of the scales was supported in that scales showed acceptable congruence coefficients in almost all comparisons. A multigroup confirmatory factor model with three latent variables (labeled internal processes, behavioral outcomes, and self-control mechanisms) could well account for the interrelations of the eight observed variables; measurement and structural weights were invariant. Behavioral outcomes and self-control mechanisms were only associated through their common dependence on internal processes. Verbal expressions and cognitive reactions showed the largest cross-cultural differences in means, whereas self-control mechanisms scales showed the smallest differences. Yet, cultural differences between the countries were small. It is concluded that anger, as measured by these scales, shows more pronounced cross-cultural similarities than differences in terms of both interrelations and mean score levels.     

Beliefs about the origins of human psychological traits

The development of children's reasoning about the origins of human psychological traits was investigated across 4 studies with a total of 316 participants ranging in age from kindergartners to 5th graders and adults. The primary methodology was a switched-at-birth task (L. A. Hirschfeld, 1995), which poses a hypothetical nature-nurture conflict. Two major issues were addressed: (a) the extent to which psychological traits are viewed as a product of environmental influence and (b) whether individuals can be primed to think about the origins of psychological traits in particular ways. Results suggest that there is an age-related increase in the tendency to make distinctions among different psychological traits and that over time, individuals come to believe that psychological traits are determined primarily by nurture. Results also show that young children's beliefs about trait origins are subject to subtle priming effects before an adultlike response pattern is seen.     

试论如何运用系统论原理认识细胞

运用系统论的原理分析了细胞的形态、结构与功能。细胞是生物体结构和功能的基本单位,具有多样性和统一性。细胞系统是复杂的物质系统,具有层次性、整体性、动态性及开放性等特征。应用唯物辩证法系统论的原理可以对细胞系统做出更新、更全面的诠释。