Structural equation models and personality research

This article is a nontechnical introduction to the use of structural equation models in personality research Although such models can be fruitfully used to address a variety of important theoretical issues, the substantive focus in this article is on the use of such models for elucidating the construct validity of personality measures We include numerous more specific topics under our treatment of construct validity First of all, we show how structural equation models can be applied to the issues of convergent and discriminant validity Do our variables measure the constructs we want them to measure and not other constructs that we would prefer not to measure? Second, we show the utility of structural equation models for predictive validity Do our variables reliably predict other constructs with which they are theoretically linked? Finally, we examine the stability of personality constructs through structural equation models Through-out, our emphasis is on the particular advantages that structural equation models bring to these analytic tasks Ultimately, such models must be used in the service of theory, and when used appropriately, they can help us to refine both our measures and our theories of individual differences     

What if there were no psychometrics?: constructs, complexity, and measurement

McGrath (2005/this issue) has published a very significant article; it is significant because it examines the substantive issue of construct validity in a simple and informative way, noting the confusions apparent in how constructs and their variables are defined, used, and interpreted within the domain of personality and individual differences. This is a careful, thoughtful, article that quietly proceeds to outline the problems with current thinking and approaches to defining and using constructs in psychology. McGrath also suggests how some of these problems might be addressed. I note that McGrath appears to miss what might be considered an obvious rejoinder to some of his arguments, that is, the use of latent variable and item response theory. Some consideration is given to these arguments. However, a cursory examination shows that although these new methodologies offer many opportunities for new stochastic questionnaire data modeling and the construction of "instant" latent variables, the same problems caused by lack of attention to measurement and meaning remain. I find I am in agreement with many of the author's views and arguments, but I also find myself wondering whether modern psychometrics and individual differences research methods is now so dominated by psychological statisticians that any thought of substantive scientific innovation in this area that deals more properly with measurement and meaning is long gone. I think the answers to the question "What if there was no psychometrics?" would be most illuminating.     

Optimism and pessimism in the context of health: bipolar opposites or separate constructs?

One difficulty plaguing research on dispositional optimism and health is whether optimism and pessimism are bipolar opposites or constitute distinct constructs. The present study examined the Life Orientation Test to determine whether the two-factor structure is explained by method bias (due to measurement) or substantive differences. The authors compared three measurement models: bipolar, bivariate, and method artifact. Optimism and pessimism emerged as distinct constructs due to substantive differences. The authors also considered the validity of optimism and pessimism, examining their relations with psychological and physical health outcomes. Optimism and pessimism were more similar in relation to psychological health than to other health-related behavior or physical health outcomes. However, a strongly interpretable pattern for the relation of optimism and pessimism to the health outcomes did not emerge. Further research may benefit from considering optimism and pessimism as bivariate and also should consider the conceptual components and behavioral mechanisms specific to each variable.     

Subjective science: Kenneth Spence's human learning research program

This article examines Kenneth Spence's human learning research from 1949 to 1967. His works show the conditioning field to be in turmoil over basic issues during this time. These issues included whether determinism should be accepted, how to interpret a psychological test score, what psychometric properties a test should have, and how to use theoretical constructs. Turmoil occurred because behaviors and events had different meanings and degrees of importance to different investigators. Thus, what appeared as "objective" scientific change in the conditioning field was really the adaptation of personal preferences in word meanings, research goals, and research methods. These issues also indicate disputes about definitions and purposes of scientific activity during Spence's era.     

The Emerging Meanings of Religiousness and Spirituality: Problems and Prospects

This article examines traditional and modern psychological characterizations of religiousness and spirituality. Three ways in which religiousness and spirituality are polarized by contemporary theorists are examined: organized religion versus personal spirituality; substantive religion versus functional spirituality; and negative religiousness versus positive spirituality. An alternative approach to understanding religiousness and spirituality is presented that integrates rather than polarizes these constructs, and sets boundaries to the discipline while acknowledging the diversity of religious and spiritual expressions. Directions for future investigations of these two constructs are presented.     

Effects of Dohsa‐hou relaxation on body awareness and psychological distress1

Relaxation is one of the most frequently used methods for treating psychological and physical problems. Many relaxation methods are effective treatments for various psychological problems. Body awareness could be an important component of body‐oriented psychological treatment. In this study, a self‐report measure for the assessment of body awareness was developed, and its psychometric characteristics and relationships with other psychological constructs were examined. The effect of Dohsa‐hou relaxation was investigated using the developed Body Awareness Scale (BAS). The results showed that the BAS had good internal consistency and test‐retest reliability, and that it was associated with related psychological constructs. Dohsa‐hou relaxation led to increased body awareness and decreased psychological distress. The BAS can be a useful instrument in the field of body‐oriented psychotherapy research and related treatment methods, and increased body awareness has an important role in Dohsa‐hou relaxation therapy.     

从社会智力到情感智力--对社会智力与情感智力理论的探讨

在智力的研究中,社会智力(social intelligence)和情感智力(emotional intelligence)是先后被心理学家提出的概念。本文试图对这两个概念出现及其相关研究进展过程进行回顾、总结和简单的评价,并提出以下一些未来可以进行探讨的问题：(1)就概念而言,社会智力和情感智力相互的关系究竟如何?(2)在智力的这一领域的研究中,概念的内涵究竟大一些好还是小一些好?(3)概念的提出,是重理论严谨性还是重应用性?(4)如何解决好的概念和研究思路与困难的理论构建和实际测量之间的矛盾?     

Integrating Pain Management in Clinical Practice

There is much evidence to suggest that psychological and social issues are predictive of pain severity, emotional distress, work disability, and response to medical treatments among persons with chronic pain. Psychologists can play an important role in the identification of psychological and social dysfunction and in matching personal characteristics to effective interventions as part of a multidisciplinary approach to pain management, leading to a greater likelihood of treatment success. The assessment of different domains using semi-structured clinical interviews and standardized self-report measures permits identification of somatosensory, emotional, cognitive, behavioral and social issues in order to facilitate treatment planning. In this paper, we briefly describe measures to assess constructs related to pain and intervention strategies for the behavioral treatment of chronic pain and discuss related psychiatric and substance abuse issues. Finally, we offer a future look at the role of integrating pain management in clinical practice in the psychological assessment and treatment for persons with chronic pain.     

Internet-based questionnaire assessment: appropriate use in clinical contexts

Use of internet-mediated questionnaire assessment is growing in behavioural telehealth provision. Literature on web-based psychological testing indicates that--while tests used online should be validated for online use--such measures can be reliable and valid. However, use of normative data (especially data from paper-and-pencil samples) presents problems. Studies have shown score distributions may differ across testing media, even when comparisons are made between equivalent samples. Data from 3 different projects illustrate such (substantive) differences, and the errors that would result from using established norms to interpret internet-mediated assessments. Given representativeness issues with "internet norms", it is recommended that if online tests are used for clinical purposes, this should currently be done in a manner that does not rely on normative data.     

Methodological developments in personality research: An introduction

This article first provides a brief overview of some of the empirical and conceptual work in personality following Mischel's (1968) critique Strengths and weaknesses of traditional personality research designs including laboratory experiments, experimental personality designs, and preexperimental correlational studies are presented Some more recent approaches to designing laboratory research that attempt to address issues of external validity and approaches to designing field Investigations that attempt to address issues of internal validity are discussed Issues associated with the measurement of constructs, the broadening of measurement methods, and newer data analytic techniques are noted Finally, a brief orientation to the other papers in the special issue is presented     

Bidimensional regression: assessing the configural similarity and accuracy of cognitive maps and other two-dimensional data sets

Bidimensional regression is a method for comparing the degree of resemblance between 2 planar configurations of points and, more generally, for assessing the nature of the geometry (Euclidean and non-Euclidean) between 2-dimensional independent and dependent variables. For example, it can assess the similarity between location estimates from different tasks or participant groups, measure the fidelity between cognitive maps and actual locations, and provide parameters for psychological process models. The authors detail the formal similarity between uni- and bidimensional regression, provide computational methods and a new index of spatial distortion, outline the advantages of bidimensional regression over other techniques, and provide guidelines for its use. The authors conclude by describing substantive areas in psychology for which the method would be appropriate and uniquely illuminating.     

Rethinking Cognition: On Coulter on Discourse and Mind

This paper responds to, and comments on, Coulter's (1999) critique of discursive psychology with particular reference to how cognition is conceptualised theoretically and analytically. It first identifies a number of basic misreadings of discursive psychological writings, which distort and, at times, reverse its position on the status of cognition. Second, it reviews the main ways in which cognition, mental states, and thoughts have been analytically conceptualised in discursive psychology (respecification of topics from mainstream psychology, studies of the psychological thesaurus in action, and studies of the way psychological issues are managed). Third, it considers two of Coulter's substantive issues: the role of correct usage and the role of conceptual vs. empirical analysis. A series of problems are identified with Coulter's development of both of these issues.     

Relevance of genotype and its environmental counterpart to the theory,interpretation, and nomenclature of ability measures

While the constructs of aplitude and achievement, which are here defined as genotypic and environmental constructs, are potentially useful in psychological theory and in the development of predictors and weights for predictors, the use of these terms for psychological tests is highly misleading. When used for tests, the terms lead to invalid inferences concerning the constructs and to erroneous predictions of later criteria. All psychological tests measure current performance levels which are phenotypic characteristics. Practically all such tests can be used to estimate both genotypic and environmental constructs with nonzero accuracy. The basic error is to use a term which denotes a genetic or an environmental construct for a phenotypic measure. Implications of this position for inferences concerning group differences in aptitude and for construct validity of tests are briefly discussed.     

What are the relationship experiences of in which one member identifies as transgender? A systematic review and meta-ethnography

Transgender individuals and their partners may face unique challenges that other couples do not. These unique challenges merit investigation, understanding and consideration by systemic practitioners in order to provide a culturally attuned service for transgender clients. A systematic review of the literature into the experiences of couples in which one member is transgender identified 22 qualitative papers. A translation and synthesis of constructs from these papers utilising a meta-ethnographic approach generated a number of third order constructs organised into nine overarching themes. These themes included experiences of stigma and discrimination, issues of power, privilege, visibility and identity, and experiences of dissonance and dysphoria that required adjustments and negotiations on the personal and relationship levels. Implications for practice and avenues for future research are discussed.     

Forensic and correctional applications of the personality assessment inventory

The relative utility of psychological tests for addressing legal issues is an area of considerable debate in the field. Regardless of the merits of psychological testing, it is apparent that such instruments are used widely both to address specific psycholegal issues and to evaluate offender populations more generally. One instrument gaining prominence in terms of its use in both forensic and correctional settings is the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991), which was developed to assess various constructs relevant to clinical settings (e.g. psychopathology, response distortion, and personality traits). This paper reviews the psychometric properties of the PAI specifically in reference to its ability to assess factors relevant to forensic decision-making, as well as its utility to provide clinically relevant information about offender populations more generally.     

Theoretical and empirical review of multinomial process tree modeling

We review a current and popular class of cognitive models calledmultinomial processing tree (MPT) models. MPT models are simple, substantively motivated statistical models that can be applied to categorical data. They are useful as data-analysis tools for measuring underlying or latent cognitive capacities and as simple models for representing and testing competing psychological theories. We formally describe the cognitive structure and parametric properties of the class of MPT models and provide an inferential statistical analysis for the entire class. Following this, we provide a comprehensive review of over 80 applications of MPT models to a variety of substantive areas in cognitive psychology, including various types of human memory, visual and auditory perception, and logical reasoning. We then address a number of theoretical issues relevant to the creation and evaluation of MPT models, including model development, model validity, discrete-state assumptions, statistical issues, and the relation between MPT models and other mathematical models. In the conclusion, we consider the current role of MPT models in psychological research and possible future directions.     

How residents cope with living near a hazardous waste landfill: An example of substantive theorizing

It is hard to be a community or environmental psychologist and not be interested in newspaper stories on global warming, oil spills, or toxic wastes in your own backyard. To the general public, these issues tend to be viewed as environmental, technological, toxicological, or governmental, but not psychological. As psychologists, we see many ways in which psychology does play a role in understanding these events. We have been engaged in a study of residents living near a hazardous waste landfill in which many subdisciplines of psychology have played an illuminating role. Wicker's (this issue) article on substantive theorizing outlines an approach to theory and research that helps communicate the structure and process of doing research on a complex area. We use his article to help us describe key aspects of our research that are not usually discussed in research articles. We believe that the type of research Wicker describes occurs more often than people realize. Unfortunately, however, journal conventions cause investigators to omit discussions of substantive theorizing aspects of their work. We hope that reading this article increases your understanding of substantive theorizing and our research as much as writing it increased our own.     

Consideration of the challenges, complications, and pitfalls of taxometric analysis

The taxometric analytic procedures developed by P. E. Meehl and colleagues represent powerful statistical tools for use in the evaluation of observed quantitative data for the possible existence of a qualitative latent class, natural subgroup, or, more commonly, a taxon. Taxometric methods, like any other statistical procedures, require thoughtful application, and the responsibility for proper interpretation of the results from a taxometric study lies with the investigator. Any investigator using taxometric methods must be mindful of those substantive and methodological issues that will facilitate the most fruitful utilization of the general taxometric approach, as well as those issues that will handicap or, perhaps, fatally flaw a taxometric investigation. A number of these issues are highlighted and discussed in this article, and a reader's, writer's, and reviewer's guide for the evaluation of taxometric research reports is provided.     

A general latent assignment approach for modeling psychological contaminants

Data from psychological experiments are rife with ‘contaminants’, which can generally be defined as data generated by psychological processes different from those intended as the object of study. Contaminant data can interfere with the testing of substantive psychological models and their parameters, so it is important to have methods for their identification and removal. After noting that current practices in cognitive modeling for dealing with contaminants are not completely satisfactory, we argue for a general latent mixture approach to the problem. We demonstrate the tractability and effectiveness of the approach concretely, through a series of four applications. These applications involve a simple choice problem, a diffusion model of a response time and accuracy in decision-making, a hierarchical signal detection model of recognition memory, and a reinforcement learning model of decision-making on bandit problems. We conclude that developing models of contaminant processes requires the same sort of creative effort that is needed to model substantive psychological processes, but that it is a necessary endeavour that can be coherently and usefully pursued within the latent mixture modeling approach.