A Sociological View of the Counselor's Role: A Dilemma and a Solution

The school counselors struggle for role identity still continues. The counselor's commitment to counseling pupils is being questioned by those with a sociological view of the counselor's role. Several writers suggest that the counselor's role be changed so that the counselor will function as a “cultural architect” or “social engineer.” The main thesis of this article is that the facilitation of human potentiality calls for a complementary approach to the resolution of school and pupil problems and not the diminution and prostitution of one role for another. It is proposed that a new position be created in our schools—that of a school sociologist.     

Forgiveness of Self and Others and Emotional Empathy

Abstract

Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory maintains that individuals enhance their opinions of decisions after they have made them. The present experiment demonstrated this postdecision dissonance enhancement effect by using a no-decision control group to test whether predecision moderation (i.e., impression management) or postdecision enhancement (i.e., dissonance reduction) occurred. Male and female subjects (N = 62) were approached in a shopping mall and asked to estimate their chances of winning a “gumball guess” lottery-type game. In clear support of cognitive dissonance theory, those giving their responses immediately after they had taken part in the gumball guess gave significantly higher estimates of winning than those asked just before they guessed or those in the control group.     

Person‐Centered Counseling: The Culture Within

The variables most related to success in counseling outcome research are the client‐counselor relationship and the personal and situational resources of the client (extratherapeutic variables). When these variables are compromised, a “specificity myth” is endorsed purporting that there are specific treatments for particular groups of people. This myth is a direct result of a shift in focus from the client to the counselor as the expert who focuses on “doing” counseling rather than “being” a counselor. Person‐centered counseling cuts to the core of therapeutic success: the relationship of the counselor‐client and the utilization of the client's resources.     

Issues and Insights: Working With God: Managing Conservative Christian Beliefs That May Interfere With Counseling

Counselors who work with conservative Christians may ask how to respect a client's values when “God” seems to be saying something contrary to what the counselor believes is in the client's best interests. In a managed care era of decreasing choice about one's counselor, referral of such clients to a conservative Christian counselor is not always an option. “Working with God” when counseling conservative Christian clients requires counselors to understand conservative Christian beliefs. This article portrays conservative Christianity as a culture and articulates conservative Christian beliefs that may challenge the counseling process, suggesting options within the framework of these beliefs.     

EMPIRICAL COMPARISONS OF COUNSELOR ORIENTATIONS

The purpose of this study was to investigate counselor behaviors related to being “counseling oriented” in one's interaction with clients as opposed to being “placement oriented.” The levels of therapeutic conditions (accurate empathy, self congruence, unconditional positive regard, and intensity and intimacy of interpersonal contact) were all positively correlated with being counseling oriented (p<.01). The multiple correlation of the therapeutic conditions with being counseling oriented was .74 with accurate empathy accounting for the major portion of the variance. Further analysis of the frequency of specific counselor responses revealed that counselors who provide high therapeutic conditions, or those who are counseling oriented: (a) manifest a distinctly different pattern of responses; and, (b) are more active in the counseling relationship in terms of total responses.     

Twenty five on: Yet another version of cognitive dissonance theory?

The aim of this article is to highlight, 25 years on, the innovations of Festinger's theory of dissonance as regards its conception of cognitive functioning. Analysis of the dissonance ratio, on the basis of which Festinger evaluated the total amount of dissonance D/(D + C) gives rise to three propositions: (1) The total amount of dissonance is evaluated on the basis of a particular cognition G. (2) This cognition is neither the denominator, nor the numerator of the dissonance ratio; it is the cognitive expression of an effective conduct. (3) No presupposition is made concerning possible consonance or dissonance-relations between cognitions C and D. Thus reduction in dissonance is not presented as a process that always orients cognitive activity toward greater consistency, but as a rationalization of conduct which may adapt to an increase in certain inconsistencies, and even generate them. This new insight into Festinger's theory may be thought of as a new version that is quite distinct, both from earlier revisions of the theory, and from the various theories of cognitive consistency. It is hoped, moreover, that it will provoke reflection concerning the current orientatlons of cognitivism in social psychology.     

COUNSELEES' RATINGS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EMPLOYMENT SERVICE COUNSELORS AND PROSPECTIVE HIGH SCHOOL COUNSELORS

The purpose of this study was to determine whether differences exist between Employment Service counselors and prospective high school counselors in the following areas: perceptions of counselor as a person, perceptions of assistance received by the counselees in educational planning, vocational guidance, personal and social matters, and the use of tests in counseling. This study was designed also to find out whether NYC and HS background, sex of the counselees, and number of sessions attended by the counseled affected their ratings of counselor effectiveness.     

Counselor Confidence and Accuracy of Prognoses of Success or Failure

This study assessed the accuracy of predictions of freshman and overall college scholastic performance made by groups of high school counselors, college advisors, and counseling psychologists from a university counseling center in relation to the confidence of these judges that their prognoses were accurate. Predictions were made from three sets of case information. The results revealed that: (1) the degree of confidence counselors indicated in their freshman and overall college “pass” predictions was appropriately related to accuracy; (2) counselor confidence in freshman “fail” predictions was not related to accuracy although the “fail” judgments tended to be more accurate than the “pass” prognoses; (3) counselor confidence in their overall “fail” predictions was not significantly related to accuracy and, unlike the results for the freshman judgments, the overall “fail” predictions were not more accurate than the “pass” predictions; (4) the amount of case data available was not related to counselor predictive accuracy.     

The Relationship of School Climate Factors to Counselor Self-Efficacy

A survey of school counselors was conducted to measure the relationship of Bandura's (1977b) concept of self-efficacy with school climate, counselor roles, and a variety of demographic variables. Results indicated that supportive staff and administrators were the strongest predictors of high counselor efficacy expectancy. In addition, outcome expectancy for school counselor behavior was predicted by both a similarly high degree of support from staff and administrators and fewer nonrelated counseling activities performed by school counselors. Discussion of results and implications for research and practice are presented.     

A Call for Greater Collaboration Between the Counseling Psychology and School Counseling Professions

Recently, The Counseling Psychologist (Vol.32[2], 2004) published a special issue titled “Counseling Psychology and School Counseling.” A cadre of counseling psychologists and counselor educators was assembled by the special issue editors, F. A. Hoffman and R. T. Carter (2004), to react and respond to J. L. Romano and M. M. Kachgal's (2004) article that stressed the need for greater collaboration between the counseling psychology and school counseling professions. A range of perspectives and views was represented in this issue. The current article summarizes these accounts and offers implications for counseling psychology.     

The Self of the Counselor

The counselor generally finds more difficulty in examining his “self” than in looking at the self of other counselors or of clients. On the assumption that the best display of counselor self occurs during the counseling relationship, a number of counseling excerpts are examined in an attempt to illustrate the level of counselor freedom. Counselor freedom is viewed as being related to the ability of the counselor to establish an empathic relationship with the client, to his ability to operate within the client's frame of reference, and to his ability to be genuine and honest in his relationship with the client.     

School counselors,leave home

This article discusses the dilemma of the “noncounseling counselor,” and suggests that the counselor be relocated at an organizational base external to the school since there are factors inherent in many school systems which influence the counselor to compromise his counseling objectives. Removed from the school, the counselor might operate more effectively as an agent of a more comprehensive community organization such as a human development center.     

The Relationship of the Racial Identity Attitudes of Black Men to Perceptions of “Parallel” Counseling Dyads

The perceptions that Black men (N = 52) have of “parallel” dyads involving a Black male client and a White male counselor were examined in a vicarious participation analogue design. As defined by Helms (1984b), parallel dyad involves a client and counselor who share similar racial identity attitudes (i.e., attitudes about themselves relative to Blacks and Whites as reference groups). Multiple regression analyses were used to investigate whether racial identity attitudes predicted participants' reactions to the session and their perceptions of the counselors' cross-cultural competence and credibility. The results of the study indicated that racial identity attitudes significantly predicted participants' immediate reactions to the counselor. We used Helms's (1984b) interaction model to discuss the results and their implications for counseling practice and research.     

The relationship between cognitive dissonance and helping behavior

An experiment was conducted to study the relationship between cognitive dissonance and helping behavior. A counterattitudinal procedure was employed to arouse dissonance. For half of the participants, an experimental confederate entered the room and elicited an opportunity for them to offer help. In this situation, fewer subjects in the dissonance condition offered help than subjects in the no‐dissonance condition. The least helping occurred among dissonance subjects with the highest level of commitment to the counterattitudinal task. Those with a medium level of commitment offered significantly more help. Despite the fact that results in line with Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory (subjects' attitudinal change) were obtained in the no‐helping situation, in helping situations, dissonance subjects who offered help presented significantly less attitude change than those who did not offer it. This was considered to be a result of helpfulness reducing dissonance arousal.     

Identifying Pretreatment Change

In this article the author addresses the possibility of pretreatment change as a viable first intervention for solution-oriented counseling approaches. Using the interview questions and format of Weiner-Davis, de Shazer, and Gingerich (1987), 82 clients were surveyed to ascertain if a change in their problem context had occurred between the time an appointment was made for counseling and the time they come to the first session. The results indicate that most of the clients can identify desirable pretreatment change with the assistance of a counselor. Bateson's (1979) “difference that makes a difference” and client expectancy are posited as explanations for the client's perceiving pretreatment change as significant.     

Cross-cultural pastoral counseling: Method or hermeneutic?

This article explores some of the meta-questions that emerge when talking about “cross-cultural pastoral counseling.” Is it a distinct counseling method or a practical hermeneutic that prompts the counselor to examine his or her therapeutic approach? The author argues that “cross-cultural pastoral counseling” is really a hermeneutic that challenges the pastoral counselor to an ongoing evaluation of how and to what extent his or her approach to pastoral counseling may be guided by dominant social convention versus the gospel mandate of Matthew 25: 31–46 [RSV]. The article reviews relevant literature, discusses three fundamental changes (“conversions”) that are necessary for the pastoral counselor in order to do cross-cultural pastoral counseling, and presents a case illustration involving a multi-cultural pastoral counseling intervention.     

Practicing and arguing for abstinence from smoking: A test of the double forced compliance paradigm

An experiment was conducted within a new paradigm for Festinger's theory of dissonance (1957): the double forced compliance paradigm (Joule, 1986a). Double compliance was used to test dissonance reduction following the execution of not just one, as in the classical paradigm, but two forced compliance behaviours. The first behaviour involved abstinence from smoking, and the second, writing a text for or against smoking. Based on the radical conception of the theory of dissonance (Beauvois and Joule, 1981; Joule, 1986b), subjects were expected to find tobacco deprivation more difficult after having written a text against smoking than before, and easier after having written a text in favour of smoking. The results confirmed these predictions.     

Counselees’ Expressed Level of Understanding of the Risk Estimate and Surveillance Recommendation are Not Associated with Breast Cancer Surveillance Adherence

We studied counselees’ expressed understanding of the risk estimate and surveillance recommendation in the final consultation for breast cancer genetic counseling in relation with their risk perception, worry and cancer surveillance adherence 1 year post-counseling. Consecutive counselees were included from 2008 to 2010. Counselees with an indication for diagnostic DNA-testing for themselves or a breast cancer affected relative were requested to complete online questionnaires before and after counseling and one year after counseling (N?=?152–124). Self-reported surveillance was compared to surveillance recommendations. Consultations were videotaped. Counselees’ reactions to the risks and recommendations were coded. Statements about the risk perception and surveillance intentions of breast cancer unaffected counselees were transcribed. Associations with outcomes were explored. Almost all breast cancer unaffected counselees (>90 %) reacted to their risk estimate with an utterance indicating understanding and this reaction was not significantly associated with their post-visit risk perception alignment. Over one-third (38.6 %) overestimated their risk post-counseling. Few counselees (5.8 %) expressed surveillance intentions. One year after counseling, about three-quarters (74.0 %) of the breast cancer unaffected counselees had adhered to the surveillance recommendation. Almost one-quarter (23.3 %) had performed more mammograms/MRI scans than recommended, which was associated with prior mammography uptake (n?=?47; X ² ?=?5.2; p?=?.02). Counselees’ post-counseling overestimation of their risk, high levels of worry and high surveillance uptake were not reflected in their reactions to the counselor’s information during the final visit.     

Explaining Mendelian Inheritance in Genetic Consultations: An IPR Study of Counselor and Counselee Experiences

The explanation of Mendelian inheritance is a key component of most genetic counselling consultations, yet no evidence base exists for this area of practice. This qualitative study used Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) to explore how information about X-linked inheritance is provided and received in genetic counseling. Twelve consultations involving two senior genetic counselors and 21 counselees were videotaped. Section(s) of videotape featuring the explanation were subsequently played back separately to both counselees and counselors and their responses and reflections recorded. All interviews were fully transcribed and analysed using the constant comparison method. A personalised diagram, drawn “live” by the counselor during the consultation was recalled by counselees as being central to their understanding of the “bottom line”. This helped bridge the gap between scientific information and their family experience and did not appear to require a baseline understanding of genetic concepts such as genes or chromosomes. Counselors reflected on the diagram’s positive impact on the way they sequenced, paced and tailored the explanation. A positive counselor-counselee relationship was vital even during this educative exchange: for counselees to feel at ease discussing complex genetic information and to help gauge counselee understanding.     

Short-Term Pastoral Counseling and the Use of Reframing

The purpose of this article is to deal with the advantage of combining short-term counseling with reframing techniques. Short-term counseling states that a) focusing on only one problem, and b) agreeing on a fixed amount of sessions will make the counselee more eager to change before the amount of sessions are spent. The thesis of the paper is that those counselees that engage in short-term counseling will be more resistant to change than the criteria of short-term counseling suggests. Some counselees want to initiate a power struggle with the counselor about the impossibility of change. Rather than giving in to such a struggle, the counselor should use reframing techniques to make the counselee see the problem from a new perspective. Reframing techniques are more likely to make the counselee solve the problem.