Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Sons and Daughters of Mothers with a History of Depression

The purpose of the present study was to examine the independent and joint effects of child gender and informant (mother-report vs. child self-report) on children’s internalizing and externalizing symptoms in an at-risk sample of children of mothers with a history of depression. Data were obtained from mothers with a history of major depressive disorder (N?=?149) and their 9- to 15-year-old children (74 males, 75 females) to assess children’s internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Little evidence was found that maternal depression amplified the typical gender differences in the prevalence of depressive symptoms and behavioral problems. Partial support was found for the hypothesis that maternal depression may equalize the rates of symptoms in boys and girls. There was also some evidence that maternal depression may reverse typical patterns of gender differences in depressive symptoms; i.e., using normative T scores to account for expected rates of problems, boys reported more symptoms than girls. Mothers and children reported significantly different levels of problems depending on child gender. Future research should investigate the processes of risk that may lead to changes in the normative patterns of gender differences in the context of maternal depression.     

Trajectories of depressive symptoms during emerging adulthood: Antecedents and consequences

In order to examine what kinds of trajectories of depressive symptoms young adults show during emerging adulthood, and their antecedents and consequences, 297 university students completed the revised Beck's depression inventory seven times over a 10-year period, and other measures at the beginning and the end of the study. The growth mixture modelling for depressive symptoms ended up in a 3-group solution: 23% of the participants were typified by a low level of symptoms, 61% showed a moderate level, and 16% fell into the third group with high and increasing levels of depressive symptoms during emerging adulthood. Those on the high-depressive trajectory had a poorer quality of relationships, and they reported more pessimistic and avoidant strategies at the beginning of the study than the others. Moreover, later on, they suffered more from burnout, earned less, and used more dysfunctional strategies.     

Self-Competence and Depressive Symptom Trajectories during Adolescence

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-competence and subsequent depressive symptom trajectories, by gender, in a community sample of adolescents (N = 753; 53% female; 65% non-Hispanic White). Data were collected annually for three years beginning when adolescents were in the 10th and 11th grades (Age: M = 16.09, SD = 0.72 years). Adolescents provided self-reports of self-competence at baseline and depressive symptoms every year. In latent growth curve models examining the overall trajectory of depressive symptoms, higher global self-worth and self-competence in close friendships were significantly associated with greater decreases in depressive symptoms (ps < 0.05). In contrast, higher academic self-competence was associated with more attenuated decreases in depressive symptoms (p = 0.001). When examining subgroups of latent depressive symptom trajectories within the context of growth mixture modeling, higher self-competence in physical appearance was associated with a decreased likelihood of membership in trajectory classes characterized by high initial, then decreasing depressive symptoms or and low initial, then increasing depressive symptoms (ps < 0.01). Among girls, higher global self-worth and self-competence in close friendship and academic domains were associated with membership in a trajectory class distinguished by high stable depressive symptoms (ps < 0.01); these associations were not observed among boys (ps > 0.05). Findings suggest that the competence-based model of depression is valid and applicable during middle-to-late adolescence, and emphasize the importance of considering gender and individual differences in the developmental course of depressive symptoms to gain a more nuanced understanding of the role of self-competence in depressive symptom trajectories.     

Distinguishing Between Latent Classes and Continuous Factors with Categorical Outcomes: Class Invariance of Parameters of Factor Mixture Models

Factor mixture models are latent variable models with categorical and continuous latent variables that can be used as a model-based approach to clustering. A previous article covered the results of a simulation study showing that in the absence of model violations, it is usually possible to choose the correct model when fitting a series of models with different numbers of classes and factors within class. The response format in the first study was limited to normally distributed outcomes. This article has 2 main goals, first, to replicate parts of the first study with 5-point Likert scale and binary outcomes, and second, to address the issue of testing class invariance of thresholds and loadings. Testing for class invariance of parameters is important in the context of measurement invariance and when using mixture models to approximate nonnormal distributions. Results show that it is possible to discriminate between latent class models and factor models even if responses are categorical. Comparing models with and without class-specific parameters can lead to incorrectly accepting parameter invariance if the compared models differ substantially with respect to the number of estimated parameters. The simulation study is complemented with an illustration of a factor mixture analysis of 10 binary depression items obtained from a female subsample of the Virginia Twin Registry.     

A test of the tripartite model of depression and anxiety in older adult psychiatric outpatients

This study examined the tripartite model of depression and anxiety in 131 psychiatric outpatients, ages 55-87. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a 3-factor model provided an adequate fit to the observed data, that the 3-factor model was empirically superior to 1- or 2-factor models, and that the 3-factor structure obtained in the current sample of older adult outpatients converged with that obtained on a separate, younger 'sample. Negative affect was significantly related to depression and anxiety symptoms and syndromes, and positive affect was more highly related to depression than anxiety symptoms and syndromes. Ways for taking into account possible age-associated differences in emotion in older adults and thus improving the conceptual model of anxiety and depression are briefly noted.     

Local solutions in the estimation of growth mixture models

Finite mixture models are well known to have poorly behaved likelihood functions featuring singularities and multiple optima. Growth mixture models may suffer from fewer of these problems, potentially benefiting from the structure imposed on the estimated class means and covariances by the specified growth model. As demonstrated here, however, local solutions may still be problematic. Results from an empirical case study and a small Monte Carlo simulation show that failure to thoroughly consider the possible presence of local optima in the estimation of a growth mixture model can sometimes have serious consequences, possibly leading to adoption of an inferior solution that differs in substantively important ways from the actual maximum likelihood solution. Often, the defaults of current software need to be overridden to thoroughly evaluate the parameter space and obtain confidence that the maximum likelihood solution has in fact been obtained.     

Coping and Positive Affect in Adolescents of Mothers With and Without a History of Depression

The adolescent children of depressed mothers are at increased risk for depression, but little is known about protective factors for these children. Maintenance of positive affect in a stressful context may be an important marker of resilience. Mothers with (n = 34) and without (n = 38) a history of depression and their adolescent children completed questionnaires regarding adolescents’ coping and depressive symptoms and engaged in a 15 min videotaped interaction about family stress. Adolescents’ observed behaviors were coded using the Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales. No significant differences emerged in observed behavior between adolescents of mothers with and without a history of depression. Higher levels of primary and secondary control coping and lower levels of disengagement coping were related to higher levels of observed positive mood and fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents. Observed positive mood was related to fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents, even after accounting for maternal history of depression and current maternal depressive symptoms. Results suggest the importance of considering positive affect in the context of family stress as a marker of resilience in adolescents at risk for depression. The current study provides evidence for coping as a protective factor, related to higher levels of positive affect and fewer depressive symptoms, in adolescents exposed to maternal depressive symptoms.     

Memory complaint and memory performance in the depressed elderly

Depressed and nondepressed elderly subjects recruited in the context of a large epidemiological study of health were compared on measures of self-reported memory disturbance and an objective index of memory performance (free recall). Three groups were studied including (a) subjects meeting Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) for major depression, (b) subjects with high levels of self-reported depressive symptoms who did not meet RDC for major depression, and (c) subjects with low levels of self-reported depressive symptoms. Subjects with high depression symptom levels reported significantly higher levels of memory complaint than did subjects with low symptom levels. However, there were no differences in self-reported memory disturbance as a function of depression diagnosis. Further, there were no significant differences between groups on the free-recall measure, either as a function of symptom level or diagnosis. It is argued that symptom severity rather than diagnosis of depression is important in determining impairment in depressed elderly people.     

Individual differences in the emergence of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: a longitudinal investigation of parent and child reports

The authors address questions about the rate that depressive symptoms emerge, developmental and gender differences in this rate, and differences between parent and child estimates of this rate. In a 12-wave, cohort-sequential, longitudinal design, 1,570 children (Grades 4-11) and parents completed reports about children's depression. Cross-domain latent growth curve analysis revealed that (a) the rate of symptom growth varied with developmental level. (b) gender differences symptom growth preceded emergence of mean level gender differences, (c) the rate of symptom development varied with age, and (d) parent-child agreement about rate of symptom change was stronger than agreement about time-specific symptoms. The authors suggest that predictability of depressive symptoms varies with age and the dimension under investigation.     

Early Adolescent Growth in Depression and Conduct Problem Symptoms as Predictors of Later Substance Use Impairment

Most studies of adolescent substance use and psychological comorbidity have examined the contributions of conduct problems and depressive symptoms measured only at particular points-in-time. Yet, during adolescence, risk factors such as conduct problems and depression exist within a developmental context, and vary over time. Though internalizing and comorbid pathways to substance use have been theorized (Hussong et al. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 25:390-404, 2011), the degree to which developmental increases in depressive symptoms and conduct problems elevate risk for substance use impairment among adolescents, in either an additive or potentially a synergistic fashion, is unclear. Using a school-based sample of 521 adolescents, we tested additive and synergistic influences of changes in depressive symptoms and conduct problems from 6th to 9th grade using parallel process growth curve modeling with latent interactions in the prediction of late adolescent (12th grade) substance use impairment, while examining gender as a moderator. We found that the interaction between growth in depression and conduct disorder symptoms uniquely predicted later substance use problems, in addition to main effects of each, across boys and girls. Results indicated that adolescents whose parents reported increases in both depression and conduct disorder symptoms from 6th to 9th grade reported the most substance use-related impairment in 12th grade. The current study demonstrates that patterns of depression and conduct problems (e.g., growth vs. decreasing) are likely more important than the static levels at any particular point-in-time in relation to substance use risk.     

Maternal and adolescent depressive symptoms and family conflict: An autoregressive cross-lagged examination of competing models in multi-stressed mothers and adolescents

Maternal and adolescent depression are challenges that often co-occur. Many studies have drawn bivariate associations between maternal depressive symptoms, adolescent depressive symptoms, and family conflict, but few have examined reciprocal effects. Even among extant studies, there is a lack of clarity related to directionality of influence. Three competing theoretical models may explain the relationship between maternal depressive symptoms, adolescent depressive symptoms, and family conflict, and these processes may differ by adolescents’ sex. Using three time points of data from 187 diverse mother-adolescent dyads, we fit a taxonomy of autoregressive cross-lagged structural equation models to simultaneously evaluate the competing theoretical models and also examine differences by sex using multiple-group analyses. Results indicate a symptom-driven model whereby adolescent depressive symptoms predicted increases in family conflict. Sex differences were also found. For males, but not females, greater adolescent depressive symptoms predicted subsequent increases in maternal depressive symptoms, which then predicted lower family conflict—possibly indicating maternal disengagement/withdrawal. Our findings suggest addressing adolescent depressive symptoms in order to prevent family conflict and that distinctive targets for the prevention/intervention of family conflict should account for differences by adolescents’ sex.     

Latent growth models of the longitudinal effects of dementia caregiving: a comparison of African American and White family caregivers

Self-report measures of depression, physical health symptoms, and life satisfaction were collected over a 2-year period from 197 family caregivers of dementia patients and 218 noncaregivers (controls). Latent growth models were used to compare changes across time for African American and White caregivers, with gender, age, and socioeconomic status serving as covariates. Results indicated that White caregivers sustained higher levels of elevated depression and decreasing life satisfaction over time compared with African American caregivers. Both groups of caregivers reported increases in physical symptoms over time. These results indicate worsening difficulties over time for many White caregivers. African American caregivers show more resilience on measures of depression and life satisfaction but are still vulnerable to increases in physical symptoms over time. Implications for additional research and clinical intervention are discussed.     

Am I Abnormal? Relative Rank and Social Norm Effects in Judgments of Anxiety and Depression Symptom Severity

Overdetection and underdetection of depression and anxiety in primary care are common and may partly reflect individuals' misperceptions of the severity of symptoms they experience. Here, we explore how people's judgments about the severity of their own symptoms are influenced by their beliefs about the distribution of symptoms experienced by the rest of the population. We apply the rank‐based decision by sampling cognitive model of judgment to symptom severity. The model proposes that judgments depend on the relative rank of an item within a mental sample of comparable items. It is predicted that judgments of symptom severity will be context dependent and more specifically that an individual's judgments will be invalid to the extent that the individual has inaccurate beliefs about the relevant social context. Two studies found that participants' assessments of symptom severity were rank based. Study 1 elicited participants' beliefs about the social distribution of symptoms and found that participants' judgments of whether they were depressed or anxious were mainly predicted not by their symptoms' objective severity but rather by where participants ranked the severity of their symptoms in comparison with the believed symptoms of others. Study 2 varied symptom distributions experimentally and again found relative rank effects as predicted. It is concluded that the real‐world application of contextual models of judgment requires investigation of individual differences in participants' background beliefs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Trajectories of resilience, depression, and anxiety following spinal cord injury

Purpose/Objective: To investigate longitudinal trajectories of depression and anxiety symptoms following spinal cord injury (SCI) as well as the predictors of those trajectories. Research Method/Design: A longitudinal study of 233 participants assessed at 4 time points: within 6 weeks, 3 months, 1 year, and 2 years from the point of injury. Data were analyzed using latent growth mixture modeling to determine the best-fitting model of depression and anxiety trajectories. Covariates assessed during hospitalization were explored as predictors of the trajectories. Results: Analyses for depression and anxiety symptoms revealed 3 similar latent classes: a resilient pattern of stable low symptoms, a pattern of high symptoms followed by improvement (recovery), and delayed symptom elevations. A chronic high depression pattern also emerged but not a chronic high anxiety pattern. Analyses of predictors indicated that compared with other groups, resilient patients had fewer SCI-related quality of life problems, more challenge appraisals and fewer threat appraisals, greater acceptance and fighting spirit, and less coping through social reliance and behavioral disengagement. Conclusion/Implications: Overall, the majority of SCI patients demonstrated considerable psychological resilience. Models for depression and anxiety evidenced a pattern of elevated symptoms followed by improvement and a pattern of delayed symptoms. Chronic high depression was also observed but not chronic high anxiety. Analyses of predictors were consistent with the hypothesis that resilient individuals view major stressors as challenges to be accepted and met with active coping efforts. These results are comparable to other recent studies of major health stressors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Observations on the Use of Growth Mixture Models in Psychological Research

Psychologists are applying growth mixture models at an increasing rate. This article argues that most of these applications are unlikely to reproduce the underlying taxonic structure of the population. At a more fundamental level, in many cases there is probably no taxonic structure to be found. Latent growth classes then categorically approximate the true continuum of individual differences in change. This approximation, although in some cases potentially useful, can also be problematic. The utility of growth mixture models for psychological science thus remains in doubt. Some ways in which these models might be more profitably used are suggested.     

Predicting internalizing symptoms over a two year period by BIS,FFFS and attentional control

Identifying risk factors for the development of internalizing disorders is of major importance. In this context, behavioral inhibition (BIS), the fight-flight-freeze-system (FFFS), and attentional control (AC) have been proposed as being possible risk factors for both anxiety disorders and depression. Even though related cross-sectionally, it is still unclear whether these factors are precursors for internalizing disorders. In this longitudinal study, 1811 participants (aged 12–15) completed questionnaires on BIS/FFFS, AC, and internalizing symptoms at pretest and at two year follow-up. Supporting the alleged importance of BIS/FFFS and AC in the development of internalizing symptoms, BIS/FFFS and AC showed predictive value for anxiety and depression symptoms at two year follow-up. For anxiety symptoms this predictive value was not independent of the level of symptoms at pretest. For depression symptoms, AC showed predictive value over and above pretest level of depression symptoms. In the context of early detection of at risk adolescents, results suggest that screening of current anxiety and depression symptoms is most relevant in addition to a focus on AC for the screening of depression. However, it cannot be ruled out that at a further extended follow-up also BIS/FFFS might show independent predictive value for symptoms of anxiety and/or depression.     

Lack of positive experiences and positive expectancies mediate the relationship between BAS responsiveness and depression

The anhedonic symptoms of depression have been linked to a lack of incentive responsiveness, which is a function of the Behavioral Activation System (BAS). Using structural equation modeling within the context of a cross-sectional design, we found that a lack of positive experiences and positive expectancies mediated the BAS-depression link among an undergraduate sample (N = 171). We tested the specificity of this model across four alternative models substituting negative experiences, negative expectancies, threat sensitivity, and symptoms of anxiety for their theoretical counterparts in the original model. In each case, the alternative model did not fit the data as well as our original model. This pattern of results is consistent with the position that a lack of positive experiences and positive expectancies uniquely mediate the relationship between the BAS and anhedonic symptoms of depression.     

An Examination of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms among Maltreated Multiracial Youth

Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are common among maltreated youth removed from their homes. These symptoms might be particularly evident in multiracial youth, although little research exists on this vulnerable population. A model whereby depression, dissociation, and posttraumatic cognition symptoms contributed to symptoms of PTSD met goodness-of-fit criteria in 160 maltreated multiracial adolescents. Enhanced model fit was found for females and for adolescents 11 to 13 years old. Analyses further revealed that the best predictors of PTSD symptoms were negative cognitions about the world and anhedonia. The findings are discussed within the context of existing theoretical models of PTSD. The results further highlight the importance of ethnically and racially sensitive approaches to assessment and treatment of youth with PTSD symptoms.     

The Contextual Role of Depression within Couples Experiencing Partner Violence

Despite previous research suggesting a link between intimate partner violence (IPV) and depression within romantic relationships, few studies have examined the role of depression in couples experiencing violence. Using dyadic data of 129 heterosexual couples seeking couples therapy for high conflict including physical IPV, depressive symptoms were evaluated as a moderator in the association between psychological and physical IPV. Results indicated that moderate and high reports of women's depressive symptoms provided a context, while men's psychological abuse toward them moved from low to high, for women to be more physically abusive toward their partners. Further, low reports of women's depressive symptoms provided a context, while men's psychological abuse toward them moved from low to high, for women to be less physically abusive toward their partners. Better understanding the role of depression and how it may offer a context for physical violence assists helping professionals in holistically addressing violence within romantic relationships.     

Differential functioning of the Beck depression inventory in late-life patients: use of item response theory

The present analyses examined age-related measurement bias in responses to items on the revised Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) in depressed late-life patients versus midlife patients. Item response theory (IRT) models were used to equate the scale and to differentiate true-group differences from bias in measurement in the 2 samples. Baseline BDI data (218 late life and 613 midlife) were used for the present analysis. IRT results indicated that late-life patients tended to report fewer cognitive symptoms, especially at low to average levels of depression. Conversely, they tended to report more somatic symptoms, especially at higher levels of depression. Adjusted cutoff scores in the late-life group are provided, and possible reasons for age-related differences in the performance of the BDI are discussed.