Agreement in Self–Other Ratings of Leader Effectiveness: The role of demographics and personality

Personality and demographic attributes for a set of 1221 focal managers were examined as correlates of leadership effectiveness evaluations that were obtained via a 360° feedback program. Polynomial regression was used to study the congruence of self‐ratings provided by focal managers relative to the different evaluative perspectives (i.e., immediate superior, peer, and subordinate). Analyses supported the prediction that focal manager's sex and age would be associated with the ratings provided by themselves and others. Plus, the tendency to overestimate one's own leader effectiveness relative to evaluations provided by others was found to be greater for males and older managers. Focal managers who expressed greater social sensitivity were evaluated more favorably by subordinates and peers, although not by superiors. Ratings of leader effectiveness from immediate superiors were, instead, more readily predicted by judgments of the performance of the focal manager's organizational unit relative to comparable units. Results of polynomial regression analysis, however, indicated that self–other agreement was related to the focal's sex, social sensitivity, and social dominance. Implications for understanding obstacles to openness to change are discussed.     

Comparing the Accuracy of Personality Judgments by the Self and Knowledgeable Others

ABSTRACT In this article we compare the accuracy of personality judgments by the self and by knowledgeable others. Self- and acquaintance judgments of general personality attributes were used to predict general, videotaped behavioral criteria. Results slightly favored the predictive validity of personality judgments made by single acquaintances over self-judgments, and significantly favored the aggregated personality judgments of two acquaintances over self-judgments. These findings imply that the most valid source for personality judgments that are relevant to patterns of overt behavior may not be self-reports but the consensus of the judgment of the community of one's peers.     

Second‐Generation Leader Categorization Research: How Subordinates' Self‐ and Typical Leader Perceptions Moderate Leader Categorization Effects

Leader categorization theory proposes that the more leaders match their subordinates' cognitive image (prototype) of an ideal leader the easier it is for subordinates to “categorize” them as leaders and consequently follow their leadership. Based on self‐concept research, we extend this perspective and argue that the relationship assumed in leader categorization theory should be stronger when subordinates perceive themselves to represent the ideal leader prototype. Further, this moderating effect should be stronger when subordinates perceive the ideal leader prototype to not only be an abstract ideal category, but one that is generally also met in reality; i.e., when it is met by typical leaders. Findings of a cross‐sectional study with employees in Germany (N = 297) support both predictions.     

Indian students' perceptions of the ideal self, the ideal leader, the ideal teacher, Indira Gandhi and the business executive.

The Activity Vector Analysis (AVA) was administered to three samples drawn from a population of graduate students at an Indian university. Results indicated a high positive relationship among the perceptions of the ideal self, ideal teacher, and ideal leader. Likewise, the consensual profile of Indira Gandhi was found to be quite similar to the ideal self cluster (r = .96). The collective perception of the business executive, however, was only remotely similar to the other two character profiles.     

A Comparison of Different Methods for the Elicitation of Attribute Weights: Structural Modeling,Process Tracing,and Self-Reports

This study investigates whether structural modeling, process tracing, and self-reports are able to provide similar information about attribute weights in multiattribute evaluation processes. In three experiments subjects had to evaluate a large number of profiles of fictitious persons described on a number of attributes. The experiments differed in type of judgment task, type of subjects, and number of attributes. Subject attribute weights were derived in all cases by fitting a statistical model (statistical weights), by analyzing verbal protocols (verbal protocol weights), and by directly asking the subject how important the attributes are for the judgments (subjective weights). Correspondence between the three sets of weights is examined in two ways: by computing the correlation between three sets of weights and by calculating how adequately the different sets of weights, applied in a linear model, can predict the subject′s judgments. The first method appears to be inappropriate for investigating correspondence. The correlations are rather unstable because of the small number of attributes, and apart from that, they tend to underestimate real correspondence when the weights in the respective sets are approximately equal. The second method shows that the three sets of weights are about equally adequate in predicting the actual subject judgments. It is concluded that this method convincingly demonstrates that the three different ways of eliciting attribute weights yield similar results.     

Antecedents of Leader Utilization of Staff Input in Decision-Making Teams

The purpose of this experiment was to explore the possibility that the inconsistent findings of Brehmer and Hagafors (1986,Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 181–195), Sniezek and Buckley (1995,Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 159–174), and leader–member exchange research regarding leaders' propensity todifferentiallyandaccuratelyweight staff input can be explained as a result of experience, the availability to the leader of staff member judgment confidence, and the cumulative past accuracy of each staff member. The availability to the team leader of staff member past judgment accuracy and staff member judgment confidence was provided in an environment in which differential staff weighting was the appropriate staff utilization strategy. Eighty-four leaders of four-person decision-making teams performed 63 decisions on a computerized decision-making task. Both experience and providing leaders with cumulative staff past accuracy information were related to greater staff weighting variability and greater staff weighting accuracy. Although positively related to staff weighting, staff confidence information did not improve leader weighting variability nor actual staff weighting accuracy.     

Cognitive and Personality Predictors of Leader Performance in West Point Cadets

The question of how to develop effective leaders is one of major importance to military organizations. This study, which examines a large cohort of U.S. Military Academy cadets over time, tests the influence of cognitive and personality variables on military leadership performance over a 4-year period. Hierarchical multiple regression procedures are used to identify factors at entry into the Academy that successfully predict military development grades as upperclassmen, 3 to 4 years later. A moderately stable cross-validated model reveals cognitive factors (college entrance scores, social judgment skills, and logical reasoning) and personality factors (agreeableness and conscientiousness) that contribute to later leader performance. A main effect for gender on leader performance was also identified, with women performing better than men. The amount of variance in leader performance scores accounted for by variables examined here, although modest, is notable considering the time interval involved. Nevertheless, future studies should explore additional factors, particularly personality ones, that may influence leader performance in developing leaders.     

Viewing exercise goal content through a person-oriented lens: A self-determination perspective

The present study examined profiles of exercise goal content and the associations with need satisfaction, motivation regulation and exercise behavior, combining variable-centered and person-centered analytical approaches. The participants were 1084 (279 men and 805 women) Swedish adults, aged between 18 and 78 years, that were all active members of an Internet-based exercise program. Latent profile analysis (LPA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to analyze the data. In SEM analysis intrinsic goals were related to need satisfaction and autonomous motivation, whereas extrinsic goals were most strongly associated with controlled motivation. LPA revealed five unique latent classes of goal content. These five classes differed in need satisfaction, motivation regulation and exercise behavior, with classes being characterized by more intrinsic goal profiles reporting higher need satisfaction and autonomous motivation. The results are discussed from a self-determination theory perspective and the benefits of using both variable and person-centered analytical approaches are highlighted.     

A latent class analysis of self‐identified reasons for experiencing homelessness: Opportunities for prevention

Individuals experience homelessness due to a vast number of factors. Therefore, the methods used to prevent individuals from experiencing homelessness should match their diverse needs. This study utilized survey data obtained from 577 adults experiencing homelessness to identify self‐reported causes of homelessness. A latent class analysis was conducted in order to identify classes or subgroups of respondents with distinct patterns of reported causes of homelessness. A latent class analysis is a person‐centred statistical approach that is used to determine groups of individuals who share similar characteristics. Findings from this analysis identified 5 distinct classes based on individuals' responses to 19 potential vulnerabilities or events that contributed to experiencing homelessness. Individuals tended to cluster around issues associated with (a) disability or physical health issues (4%), (b) substance abuse or mental health issues (30%), (c) report major life changes (3%), (d) financial crises (7%), or (e) employment difficulties (55%). Significant group differences occurred across military veteran status, history of homelessness, depression, and health‐related quality of life. Results for these analyses suggest that individuals report notable differences in their reasons for becoming homeless and therefore require unique preventative solutions.     

相似性判断和差异性判断的不对称性及其机制探索

本文阐述了相似性判断和差异性判断不对称性的相关研究。首先介绍了不对称性的发展及理论解释。其次,根据事件相关电位的研究结果,阐述了图-词信息的双编码模型对相似性判断的影响。接着分析和介绍了相似性判断的双编码过程及其时间进程。最后,作者提出有待深入研究的几个问题：（1）差异性策略在分类和推理中的应用;（2）相似性双编码过程的实证研究及其应用;（3）从发展认知神经科学的角度探讨不对称的认知神经机制。     

Tactical Military Leader Requisite Complexity: Toward a Referent Structure

The U.S. Army has focused on developing leader competencies in order to promote adaptability for asymmetric warfare. Expanding leader adaptive capacity, however, requires integrating competencies with deeper knowledge structures and leader identity. We conduct a three-stage exploratory study using semistructured interviews and three separate samples of experienced combat leaders to assess the organization of tactical leader functional roles. We identify the breadth of roles, tasks, skills, and attributes representative of expert tactical military leaders. We hope to take a first step in circumscribing the requisite cognitive and behavioral complexity required of tactical leaders and thereby provide a referent structure for future research on what constitutes requisite complexity for tactical military leaders.     

Origins of adolescents' ideal self: an intergenerational perspective

The present longitudinal study traced the ideal self of 120 adolescents to the ideals that parents hold for themselves and for their children. Ideals were assessed using Q sorts for personality attributes and life goals. After permutation analysis was used to control for random similarity, moderate parent-child ideal-self similarity was evident. Three intermediate transmission steps accounted for this intergenerational similarity: (a) transfer of parents' ideal self to ideals for their children, (b) children's perception, and (c) acceptance of these parental ideals. The last 2 processes related to parenting practices, with parental warmth augmenting parent-child concordance and restrictiveness reducing it. Compared with boys' ideal self, that of girls was more similar to the ideals that parents hold for their children and for themselves. Analyses of patterns over time suggested a growth of ideal-self stability across adolescence.     

The Reliability And Consistency Of Complex Personality Judgements

Two separate tasks were used to investigate the ability of subjects to make reliable and consistent judgments of similarities among personalities. Ten social categories for which each subject specified persons known to him- self were used as concepts. Test-retest reliabilities were obtained for an 8 point similarity-dissimilarity scale and inconsistency was measured by the intransitive relations appearing in a triadic judgment test. Reliabilities and consistencies were judged sufficiently adequate for use of these types of judgments in a multidimensional scaling approach t o individual differences in social perception.     

Mental health symptoms,well-being and experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic: A mixed-methods practice-based study

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated abrupt and substantial changes in daily life, and public health strategies intended to protect physical health can negatively affect mental health and well-being, especially for individuals with pre-existing mental health challenges. For this study, we surveyed a sample of clients (N = 94) in the summer of 2020 from a community mental health clinic in the northeast United States. A mixed-methods, concurrent triangulation design was used to (a) identify client subgroups on indicators of mental health (i.e. anxious and depressive symptoms) and emotional, psychological, and social well-being using latent profile analysis (LPA), and (b) within these subgroups, examine qualitative, thematic patterns in self-described challenges, benefits and learning related to the pandemic. The LPA revealed five distinct subgroups with various levels of symptoms and well-being, including Stagnant (moderate symptoms/moderate well-being), Languishing (high symptoms/low well-being), Flourishing (low symptoms, high well-being), Fortitudinous (high symptoms, moderate well-being) and Mobilized (moderate symptoms, high well-being). These divergent subgroups support the need to conceptualise mental health symptoms apart from well-being and assess for heterogeneous constellations of such constructs among psychotherapy clients. Thematic analysis offered additional insight into pandemic experiences within each subgroup, including attention to psychological, emotional, behavioural/lifestyle, relational, physical and ecological/contextual dimensions of self-experience, as well as the ways clients had adjusted to the pandemic's circumstances. Findings support nuanced conceptualisations of positive mental health and offer insight into coping and adaptation during this public health crisis.     

GUEST EDITORIAL MBR: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT

It was hypothesized that paired-comparison judgments of multiple-cue profiles would be a joint function of instruction set,- cue-inconsistency, and individual differences. Thirty-one subjects judged all possible pairs of 22 profiles containing eight cues in an own-control, counterbalanced design. A comparison of instructions providing no attribute for judging similarity with those which did provide an attribute revealed systematic differences with respect to both the number and kind of perceived profile dimensions. However, within each instruction set individual differences emerged with respect to the perceived profile dimensionality which would have been obscured with a group-averaging multidimensional scaling procedure. Further, more individual difference variability was present in the instructional set providing no attribute for judgment. Finally, many subgroups of response-homogeneous judges were found to base their judgments of profile similarity on discrepant cues whereas others did not. The possibility was raised that resolution of inconsistent cues may involve either weighting of one or the other of the cues or utilizing an entirely new cue for judgment.     

Suicide trends in Canada and West Germany: an application of configural frequency analysis

Canadian and West German successful suicides for the years 1974-1977 were used to fit a log-linear model relating age, method of suicide, gender, and country to suicide frequency. Configural frequency analyses (CFA) were performed to complement the log-linear analyses, as well as to obtain more information about the data. A log-linear model involving all four three-way interactions among these variables was required to explain the observed frequency distribution in a satisfactory manner. Results from this study support McIntosh and Santos's (1982) findings that each gender displays its own unique pattern of methods of suicide. This study also showed that each group has its own unique pattern of methods of suicide within each specific gender group. Results from CFA showed different patterns in the trends of suicide for each age x gender x country x method of suicide grouping. These results can be used to help clarify the intricate relationships among the factors that are important in explaining suicide trends.     

Defining traits differently for self and others

Identical trait labels may be understood differently in thinking about self and in thinking about others. Specifically, when making self-judgments, individuals define traits primarily in terms of unobservable manifestations, e.g., how one feels. However, in making other-judgments, particularly in making judgments about relatively unfamiliar others, individuals define traits primarily in terms of observable manifestations, e.g., how one looks. This prediction was tested in three experiments (Exp. 1: N = 96, Polish undergraduates including 19 men, 77 women; Exp. 2: N = 96, U.S. undergraduates including 18 men, 78 women; Exp. 3: N = 74, Polish undergraduates including 18 men, 56 women). Participants were asked to perform a generic trait judgment task followed by a specific trait judgment task in which the same traits were preceded by a qualifier "feels" or "looks". As expected, in the case of self-judgments, generic judgments predicted feels judgments better than looks judgments. This pattern did not occur for judgments of others and was reversed for judgments about others who were relatively unfamiliar.     

Defining Self-Worth: Trait Self-Esteem Moderates the Use of Self-Serving Trait Definitions in Social Judgment

People possess self-serving definitions of social traits and categories. When a trait is positive, people emphasize their own attributes in their definition of the trait. When the trait is negative, they de-emphasize self-attributes. Across three studies, we discovered that this tendency is moderated by dispositional self-esteem. High self-esteem individuals articulate more self-serving trait definitions than their low esteem counterparts. This was revealed in explicit reports of trait definitions, reaction times used to report trait definitions, as well as in judgments of other people. Although more muted, the trait definitions of low self-esteem participants tended to be self-serving in one study and more even-handed in two others. Implications of these findings for understanding the relation of self to social judgment are discussed.     

Expectations of consistency about the self: Consequences for self-concept formation

This study proposes that the on-line versus memory-based judgment distinction has important implications for understanding self-concept formation and content. Past research has shown that perceivers form on-line judgments of targets who are expected to display a great deal of behavioral consistency (e.g., individuals) but form memory-based judgments of targets who are expected to display less behavioral consistency (e.g., groups). Experiment 1 found that perceptions of behavioral consistency for the self were strong and closer to perceptions of consistency for individuals than for groups. Thus, we predicted that self-concepts should, by default, be formed on-line. Experiment 2 supported this prediction. Experiment 3 manipulated participants’ expectations of behavior consistency and found that those expecting greater consistency in their behaviors formed on-line self-concepts. Experiment 4 used a different methodology and behavioral domain, and it collected more direct process data that further supported the importance of the on-line versus memory-based distinction for the self. Implications for understanding self-concepts and for comparing self-knowledge to how people understand other types of social entities are discussed.     

Cultural differences in unrealistic optimism and pessimism: the role of egocentrism and direct versus indirect comparison measures

Recent research has raised questions regarding the consistency of unrealistic optimism and related self-enhancing tendencies, both within cultures and across cultures. The current study tested whether the method used to assess unrealistic optimism influenced cross-cultural patterns in the United States and Japan. The results showed that the direct method (a single comparison judgment between self and peers) produced similar patterns across cultures because of cognitive biases (e.g., egocentrism); specifically, participants were unrealistically optimistic about experiencing infrequent/negative events but pessimistic about experiencing frequent/ negative events. However, the indirect method (separate self- and peer judgments) produced different patterns across cultures because culturally specific motivational biases emerged using this method; specifically, the U.S. sample was more unrealistically optimistic than the Japanese sample. The authors discuss how these results might influence the interpretation of previous findings on culture and self-enhancement.