Effects of Alternative Outcome Scenarios and Structured Outcome Evaluation on Case-Based Ethics Instruction

Case-based instruction has been regarded by many as a viable alternative to traditional lecture-based education and training. However, little is known about how case-based training techniques impact training effectiveness. This study examined the effects of two such techniques: (a) presentation of alternative outcome scenarios to a case, and (b) conducting a structured outcome evaluation. Consistent with the hypotheses, results indicate that presentation of alternative outcome scenarios reduced knowledge acquisition, reduced sensemaking and ethical decision-making strategy use, and reduced decision ethicality. Conducting a structured outcome evaluation had no impact on these outcomes. Results indicate that those who use case-based instruction should take care to use clear, less complex cases with only a singular outcome if they are seeking these types of outcomes.     

Training respite care providers for families with handicapped children: Experimental analysis and validation of an instructional package

We conducted four experiments to evaluate a respite care training package. In Experiment 1, we assessed the effectiveness of an instructional manual on the acquisition of respite care skills and compared the relative effects of three different manual on the acquisition of respite care skills and compared the relative effects of three different manual presentation formats. Results showed that performance during simulated (role-played) respite care situations improved substantially for all six trainees following presentation of the instructional manual (with no significant differences between presentation formats) although some remedial training was necessary to achieve mastery criterion. In Experiment 2, we evaluated the effects of the manual presented as a whole with a larger group of trainees and compared it to a workshop training approach. Results showed that both the instructional manual and workshop training approaches were effective, but that the former appeared to be more cost-effective. In both experiments, correct responding generalized to a respite care situation with a multiply handicapped child. In addition, several measures of social validity were obtained. In Experiment 3, we evaluated a simplified training and assessment package that could be conducted using the resources typically available to respite care agencies, and in Experiment 4, we demonstrated that respite care agency personnel could successfully implement this program.     

THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF WEB-BASED AND CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: A META-ANALYSIS

Meta-analytic techniques were used to examine the effectiveness of Web-based instruction (WBI) relative to classroom instruction (CI) and to examine moderators of the comparative effectiveness of the 2 delivery media. The overall results indicated WBI was 6% more effective than CI for teaching declarative knowledge, the 2 delivery media were equally effective for teaching procedural knowledge, and trainees were equally satisfied with WBI and CI. However, WBI and CI were equally effective for teaching declarative knowledge when the same instructional methods were used to deliver both WBI and CI, suggesting media effects are spurious and supporting Clark's (1983, 1994) theory. Finally, WBI was 19% more effective than CI for teaching declarative knowledge when Web-based trainees were provided with control, in long courses, and when trainees practiced the training material and received feedback during training. Study limitations and directions for future research are discussed.     

Structuring Case-Based Ethics Training: How Comparing Cases and Structured Prompts Influence Training Effectiveness

This study examined how structuring case-based ethics training, either through (a) case presentation or (b) prompt questions, influences training outcomes. Results revealed an interaction between case presentation and prompt questions such that some form of structure improved effectiveness. Specifically, comparing cases led to greater sensemaking strategy use and decision-ethicality when trainees considered unstructured rather than structured prompts. When cases were presented sequentially, structuring prompts improved training effectiveness. Too much structure, however, decreased future ethical decision making, suggesting that there can be too much of a good thing when structuring case-based ethics education. Implications for designing ethics training programs are discussed.     

Cognitive Load While Learning to Use a Computer Program

There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that many traditional instructional techniques may unnecessarily overload limited working memory and impede learning. Based on cognitive load theory, it was hypothesised that instructional design only takes on a crucial role when there is a high level of interaction between learning elements resulting in those elements having to be simultaneously held in working memory. When there is little, if any, interaction between individual learning elements, then the format of presentation should be inconsequential. These hypotheses were tested using a computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM) package with trainees from a Sydney company. Results showed that when instructions involved high element interactivity, a self-contained manual that physically integrated disparate information and did not require the use of the computer hardware was vastly superior to instructional formats that involved continual interaction with the computer. No differences were found between instructional formats when the learning material entailed low element interactivity. Evidence that these findings were due to cognitive load rather than other factors came from secondary task analysis. In light of these and previous results, suggestions are made for cognitively guided instructional packages.     

Teaching awareness of strategic behavior in combination with strategy training: Effects on children's memory performance

The present study examined the effectiveness of two components (rehearsal training and strategy awareness) of an instructional package designed to train the developmentally young in the use of mature information processing techniques. Two groups of children of equivalent developmental age (MA = 8), one mildly retarded and the other of average intelligence, participated. Rehearsal training was effective in improving recall scores on the training task; however, neither rehearsal training, memory awareness, nor their combination significantly altered memory performance on the generalization tasks. There was evidence, however, that the combination of rehearsal training and strategy awareness did increase the likelihood of strategy transfer on the generalization task (recognition) which most closely resembled the training task. Post-task questioning revealed that instructions concerning memory awareness did improve subjects ability to verbalize appropriate strategic behavior; however, these improvements were not consistently translated into either actual use of a rehearsal strategy or improved performance. Discussion centered on the implications of these results and on the need for increased research on the metamnemonic skills involved in strategy generalization.     

A META‐ANALYTIC EXAMINATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL EFFECTIVENESS OF COMPUTER‐BASED SIMULATION GAMES

Interactive cognitive complexity theory suggests that simulation games are more effective than other instructional methods because they simultaneously engage trainees’ affective and cognitive processes ( Tennyson & Jorczak, 2008 ). Meta‐analytic techniques were used to examine the instructional effectiveness of computer‐based simulation games relative to a comparison group (k= 65, N= 6,476). Consistent with theory, posttraining self‐efficacy was 20% higher, declarative knowledge was 11% higher, procedural knowledge was 14% higher, and retention was 9% higher for trainees taught with simulation games, relative to a comparison group. However, the results provide strong evidence of publication bias in simulation games research. Characteristics of simulation games and the instructional context also moderated the effectiveness of simulation games. Trainees learned more, relative to a comparison group, when simulation games conveyed course material actively rather than passively, trainees could access the simulation game as many times as desired, and the simulation game was a supplement to other instructional methods rather than stand‐alone instruction. However, trainees learned less from simulation games than comparison instructional methods when the instruction the comparison group received as a substitute for the simulation game actively engaged them in the learning experience.     

Managing split‐attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction

Two experiments investigated alternatives to split‐attention instructional designs. It was assumed that because a learner has a limited working memory capacity, any increase in cognitive resources required to process split‐attention materials decreases resources available for learning. Using computer‐based instructional material consisting of diagrams and text, Experiment 1 attempted to ameliorate split‐attention effects by increasing effective working memory size by presenting the text in auditory form. Auditory presentation of text proved superior to visual‐only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. In that case, the visual form was redundant and imposed a cognitive load that interfered with learning. Experiment 2 ameliorated split‐attention effects by using colour coding to reduce cognitive load inducing search for diagrammatic referents in the text. Mental load rating scales provided evidence in both experiments that alternatives to split‐attention instructional designs were effective due to reductions in cognitive load. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modeling the Instructional Effectiveness of Responsible Conduct of Research Education: A Meta-Analytic Path-Analysis

Predictive modeling in education draws on data from past courses to forecast the effectiveness of future courses. The present effort sought to identify such a model of instructional effectiveness in scientific ethics. Drawing on data from 235 courses in the responsible conduct of research (RCR), structural equation modeling techniques were used to test a predictive model of RCR course effectiveness. Fit statistics indicated the model fit the data well, with the instructional characteristics included in the model explaining approximately 85% of the variance in RCR instructional effectiveness. Implications for using the model to develop and improve future RCR courses are discussed.     

VIDEO-BASED TRAINING OF RESPITE CARE PROVIDERS: AN INTERACTIONAL ANALYSIS OF PRESENTATION FORMAT

We conducted two studies to evaluate a video-based instructional package for training respite care providers and the role of presentation format (viewing the videotapes alone, with a partner, and with structured group training) as a contextual variable. In Study 1, the results of a within-subjects Latin square design nested within a multiple baseline showed that performance during simulated (role-played) respite care situations improved in five of the six skill areas for the 12 trainees following presentation of the videotape, with no differences between presentation formats. Correct responding generalized to respite care situations involving a developmentally disabled child, and in most cases, acquired skills were maintained for up to 6 months. In Study 2, we conducted a clinical replication of Study 1 under conditions more closely approximating those in which the training program would be implemented by respite care agencies. Results of the between-groups analysis were consistent with the findings of Study 1.     

Video training of imagery for mature adults

To examine the effectiveness of videotaped memory training, two groups of middle-aged and older adults were given imagery training that included videotaped presentation of interactive imagery for object location recall and linking items on a list, and the image-name match method for name recall. The training group performed significantly better than the waiting list on the initial post-test, and the two groups were comparable after both groups had received training. Evidence for both maintenance and generalization was found. Videotaped presentation of imagery training is effective for mature adults as a self-paced at-home intervention, and has cost-saving advantages over the predominant training methodology.     

The role of mental relaxation in experimental desensitization

Certain evidence indicates that training in peripheral muscle relaxation is not an essential factor in the successful experimental desensitization of phobias. Rachman (1968) has suggested that a sense of calmness or mental relaxation is the necessary component and that all the preliminary training techniques leading to successful desensitization, have, as the basis for their success, the inadvertent induction of this state of mental calmness. The direct induction of mental relaxation then, ought to be at least as effective an adjunct to desensitization as training in muscle relaxation. Using spider phobia as the target behaviour, the present study compared the effectiveness of (a) hierarchy presentation paired with deep muscle relaxation; (b) hierarchy presentation paired with instructions to feel calm and relaxed and alternated with imagining a pleasant scene; (c) a combination of these two procedures paired with hierarchy presentation; and (d) a placebo control procedure. The treatment groups all improved significantly more than controls and there there were no differences between treatments. The results were seen as offering strong support of Rachman's position. Both theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed with consideration being given to the nature of “mental calmness”.     

Building the Better Mental Training Mousetrap: Is Periodization a More Systematic Approach to Promoting Performance Excellence?

Over the past two decades, mental skills training (MST) has experienced a tremendous surge in popularity, yet MST is not without its critics, including some athletes and coaches. Additionally, a number of concerns have arisen about mental training effectiveness, and its ability to maximize athlete development, performance, and peaking. Periodization is a systematic program development and implementation strategy that holds promise for enhancing mental training effectiveness and combating some of the problems currently limiting MST interventions. Thus, the purpose of this conceptual paper was threefold. First, periodization concepts are introduced by demonstrating how they are utilized to systematically guide physical training. Second, strategies to adapt periodization concepts to enhance mental training programs are examined, along with techniques to integrate physical and mental training, including: mental training tool and skill periodization plans and mental training drill menus. Finally, a case study is presented to illustrate how an integrated approach to periodized training that targets both physical and mental skill development can enhance the effectiveness of MST while minimizing implementation problems.     

Effects of age, sex and differentiated training programmes on motor learning

This research indicated that the effectiveness of different instructional strategies during training was determined by age, by practicing specific movement and nonspecific movement, and by using different criterion apparatus.     

Improving instruction for adults with developmental disabilities: Evaluation of a staff training package

Improvements in adaptive behavior among adults with developmental disabilities often depends on the quality of instruction delivered by direct-care staff. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of a multifaceted package for improving the quality of instructional interactions among three staff/adult dyads. Instructional interactions were first analyzed to identify areas for improvement. A multifaceted intervention package consisting of inservice training, participative management, and on-going feedback was then implemented in a multiple-baseline design across dyads. The package trained staff to increase their use of time delay and reinforcement strategies and these changes were associated with greater independence in a sandwich making task among two of the three participating adults. The results suggest direct observation of existing instructional interactions may provide valuable information when training staff to implement effective habilitative programs for adults with developmental disabilities.     

Minor Studies of Aggression: V. Strength of Frustration-Reaction as a Function of Strength of Drive

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative effectiveness of two methods of presenting visualized instruction to Ss and to determine the effectiveness of different types of visuals in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives. Five hundred twenty Ss participated in the study; each received a pretest, participated in his respective instructional presentation, and received four criterial tests. Analysis indicated that (a) the method of presenting visualized instruction determines the type of visualization most effective in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives; (b) for facilitating S achievement of certain objectives, color in visuals is an important instructional variable; and (c) not all visuals are equally effective in facilitating S achievement of different educational objectives.     

Enhancing Multiplication Performance in Students with Moderate Intellectual Disabilities Using Pegword Mnemonics Paired with a Picture Fading Technique

The present study examined the effectiveness of an instructional package that included an adapted version of pegword mnemonics paired with a picture fading technique in teaching two students with moderate intellectual disabilities to recall 28 single-digit multiplication facts between 2 and 9. The instructional package was assessed using a multiple baseline design across students. Results indicated that instruction produced substantial and immediate effects in that both students increased their accuracy at recalling basic multiplication facts, maintained the newly acquired skill, and were able to generalize it across material, format, and another trainer. These results have implications for teaching students with intellectual disabilities basic math facts that are considered important for gaining access to the general curriculum.     

Instructional strategy effects on the retention and transfer of procedures of different difficulty level

In the present study, the effects of two instructional strategies on the retention and transfer of procedures of different difficulty level were investigated. Difficulty level was manipulated by providing a different number of cues during training. The instructional strategies differed with respect to the amount of contextual interference. Sixty-four subjects were randomly assigned to either a high interference group or a low interference group. Retention and transfer were measured immediately following training and after a three-week delay. The dependent variables were number of errors and decision time. Results showed no differences between the two training groups over the various difficulty levels. Results further showed that retention performance increased as fewer cues were available during practice. It is suggested that ‘delayed automatization’ can account for the observed increment in performance level. It is further suggested that contextual interference may produce delayed automatization of task performance but is only effective if relationships can be discovered in the learning material.     

A randomized controlled effectiveness trial of parent management training with varying degrees of therapist support

This study examined the effectiveness of a Swedish parent management training (PMT) intervention for parents of children aged 3 to 10 within the context of regular social service. Self-referred parents of 159 children (aged 3 to 10) with conduct problems were randomly assigned to either 11 practitioner-assisted group sessions (PMT-P), or a single instructional workshop followed by self-administration of the training material (PMT-S), or a waitlist control group. Intent-to-treat analyses showed that both PMT-P and PMT-S improved parent competence and reduced child conduct problems compared to the waitlist at posttest. Both training conditions showed further significant improvements at the 6-month follow-up. In direct comparison, PMT-P was superior to PMT-S on measures of child conduct problems at both posttest and follow-up. Improvement in child conduct was mediated by improvement in parent competencies and homework fidelity. The findings in this study have implications for large-scale dissemination of parent management training through different means of delivery.