Age-of-acquisition effects in lexical and episodic memory tasks

This paper reports four experiments on the effects of word age of acquisition in verbal tasks. In all cases, multiple-regression analysis was used to assess the relative effects of age as opposed to other potentially relevant word attributes. Experiments 1 and 2 concerned lexical memory tasks. In Experiment 1, picture naming speeds were found to be mainly determined by picture codability and name age of acquisition. In Experiment 2, it was found that when subjects produced words in response to bigram cues, early acquired target words were more likely to be produced than later acquired words, even when frequency and other word attributes were taken into account. The remaining two experiments dealt with the episodic memory tasks of free recall and recognition. No age effects were found in these tasks. It was concluded that early age of acquisition facilitates retrieval from lexical memory but has no significant effect in episodic memory tasks.     

Overcoming Misinformation Effects in Eyewitness Memory: Effects of Encoding Time and Event Cues

Eyewitness memory is often distorted when misleading information is presented to subjects after encoding. Three experiments explored ways to overcome these misinformation effects. In Experiment 1, subjects viewed slides of a robbery, at a rate of four or seven seconds per slide. Five minutes later subjects were given a recognition test with few (1–3) or numerous (6–13) event cues. Providing numerous retrieval cues improved overall performance, but did not reduce the effects of misinformation. W ith week-long delays (Experiment 2) numerous retrieval cues did eliminate misinformation effects, but only when subjects viewed slides at the slower rate (seven seconds per slide). Experiment 3 essentially replicated this pattern, using a modified test to eliminate any biasing effects of distractors. Given adequate encoding and numerous retrieval cues, misinformation effects were eliminated, suggesting that under some conditions misinformation makes event memory inaccessible, but not unavailable.     

公平加工的情境依赖性:来自行为的证据

采用最后通牒博弈范式,考察利益水平及社会距离对个体公平加工的影响,探讨公平加工的情境依赖性。实验结果表明:(1)对分配提议的加工受到利益水平的调节,不利不公平条件下被试更加注重公平。(2)提议的不同水平影响被试的拒绝行为,提议越不公平,拒绝率越高。(3)虽然社会距离的主效应不显著,但在实际情境中,较近的社会距离下人们对公平的要求更严格,证实公平加工具有情境依赖性。     

Within compound Associations Mediate the Retrospective Revaluation of Causality Judgements

The role of within-compound associations in the retrospective revaluation of causality judgements was investigated in a two-stage procedure in which the subjects were asked to learn whether or not different food stimuli caused an allergic reaction in hypothetical patients. In the compound-cue stage a number of compound cues, each consisting of a competing stimulus and a target stimulus, were associated with the reaction across a series of trials, whereas in the single-cue stage the subjects had the opportunity to learn which of the competing cues, when presented alone, caused the reaction. Each target stimulus was presented with the same competing cue across all compound trials in the consistent condition, but with a different competing cue on each trial in the varied condition. In a forward procedure, in which the single-cue stage preceded compound cue training, judgements of the causal effectiveness of the target stimuli were reduced or blocked by training them in compound with a competing cue that had been previously paired with the reaction. Moreover, the magnitude of this reduction was comparable in the consistent and varied conditions. This was not true, however, when the single- and compound-cue stages were reversed in the backward procedure. Judgements for target cues compounded with competing cues that were subsequently paired with the reaction were reduced only in the consistent condition. If it is assumed that stronger associations were formed between the competing and target stimuli during the compound-cue stage in the consistent condition than in the varied condition, this pattern suggests that the retrospective revaluation of causality judgements can be mediated by the formation of within-compound associations.     

Attention and cognition

Forty 4-year-old children were subjects in an experimental designed to determine whether learning to attend to relevant cues is a sufficient condition for acquisition of length and number conservation. Three groups of non-conservers were trained by means of an oddity-problem procedure to attend to the cues specifying either length, number, or both length and number. They were subsequently tested along with an untrained control group on tasks of length, number, mass and continuous quantity conservation. Some improvement in conservation was found, but it was neither impressive in magnitude nor specific to the cues of training. For example, the group trained to attend to length cues conserved length about 25% of the time, the same rate at which this group also conserved number, mass, and liquid quantity. This non-specificity is contrary to an attention hypothesis and suggests instead that training, to the extent it was effective, induced a general, abstract quantitative knowledge.     

Influences of visibility,intentions, and probability in a peripheral cuing task

According to the concept of direct parameter specification, nonconsciously registered information can be processed to the extent that it matches currently active intentions of a person. This prediction was tested and confirmed in the current study. Masked visual information provided by peripheral cues led to reaction time (RT) effects only if the information specified one of the required responses (Experiments 1 and 3). Information delivered by the same masked cues that did not match the intentions was not used. However, the same information influenced RT if it was provided by visible cues (Experiments 2 and 3). The results suggest that the processing of nonconsciously registered information is flexible because it is susceptible to the changing intentions of a person. Yet, these processes are apparently restricted, as nonconsciously registered information cannot be used as easily for purposes not corresponding to the currently active intentions as better visible information.     

Endogenous-like orienting of visual attention in rats

This study investigated the orienting of visual attention in rats using a 3-hole nose-poke task analogous to Posner, Information processing in cognition: the Loyola Symposium, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, (1980) covert attention task for humans. The effects of non-predictive (50% valid and 50% invalid) and predictive (80% valid and 20% invalid) peripheral visual cues on reaction times and response accuracy to a target stimulus, using Stimuli-Onset Asynchronies (SOAs) varying between 200 and 1,200 ms, were investigated. The results showed shorter reaction times in valid trials relative to invalid trials for both subjects trained in the non-predictive and predictive conditions, particularly when the SOAs were 200 and 400 ms. However, the magnitude of this validity effect was significantly greater for subjects exposed to predictive cues, when the SOA was 800 ms. Subjects exposed to invalid predictive cues exhibited an increase in omission errors relative to subjects exposed to invalid non-predictive cues. In contrast, valid cues reduced the proportion of omission errors for subjects trained in the predictive condition relative to subjects trained in the non-predictive condition. These results are congruent with those usually reported for humans and indicate that, in addition to the exogenous capture of attention promoted by both predictive and non-predictive peripheral cues, rats exposed to predictive cues engaged an additional slower process equivalent to human's endogenous orienting of attention. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of an endogenous-like process of covert orienting of visual attention in rats.     

Decision latencies of “same” and “different” judgments

When a subject is asked to judge whether two stimuli are “same” or“different,” the time he takes to reach the decision same is frequently unequal to the time he takes to reach the decision different. We studied this discrepancy as a function of several variables, including stimulus modality, “codability” vs.“noncodability” of test stimuli, interstimulus interval, and discrimination difficulty. Results of four different experiments performed on a total of 111 subjects showed codability and discrimination difficulty to be the most important factors. Stimuli that are codable (i.e., which can be categorized by absolute judgment) yield a shorter latency for decision same, and noncodable stimuli (i.e., those requiring a reference stimulus for categorization) yield a longer latency for decision same. The modality of test stimuli, the prothetic or metathetic nature of the dimension to be judged, and simultaneous vs. successive presentation of the stimuli appear not to be crucial factors.     

Speed constancy and the perception of distance

The distance-calibration hypothesis states that retinal velocity is scaled by using distance cues, and judged velocity remains unchanged when distance is changed. The relational hypothesis states that judged velocity depends on retinal velocities, and is proportional to judged distance. These hypotheses were compared in three experiments where the movements of the standard stimulus and the comparison stimulus were manipulated by the ratio of the angular velocity of the comparison stimulus to the angular velocity of the standard stimulus. The presentation conditions of the standard stimulus and the comparison stimulus, and the colour cues of the two stimuli were also manipulated in order to change the strength of the cues available to the observers. The results indicate that judged velocities and the relationship of judged distance and velocity depend on the strength of the cues. When cues are strong, the distance-calibration hypothesis adequately explains speed constancy. When cues are weak, judged velocity and the relationship between judged distance and velocity are consistent with the prediction of the relational hypothesis. The perceived speed of a stimulus depends not only on the physical speed of the stimulus but also on non-motion cues, some of which are distance cues involved in depth perception.     

Stimulus generalization following extra-dimensional training in educationally subnormal (severely) children.

The use of discrimination learning paradigms in the study of attentional transfer is discussed. The technique of go/no-go discrimination learning followed by stimulus generalization testing is contrasted with the more familiar simultaneous learning paradigm followed by a shift in the relevant cues. In the former paradigm the effect of training a discrimination on one dimension on the slope of the stimulus generalization gradient on an independent gradient dimension (extra-dimensional training) is assessed. A steepening of the gradient relative to appropriate control procedures is taken as evidence of positive attentional transfer. The relevance of the technique to the detailed study of attentional transfer in educationally subnormal (severely) (ESN(S)) children is considered. In Expt. I nine ESN(S) children were trained in a go/no-go discrimination involving stimuli differing in orientation, and were generalization tested on a dimension that was orthogonal, namely hue. Of the six subjects who learnt the discrimination five showed clear decremental gradients on the hue dimension. In contrast a Pseudo-Discrimination group (PD) of eight subjects matched to those in the TD group showed no gradients. These subjects were not trained in the orientation discrimination, but were reinforced for responding on 50 per cent of each of the S+ and S- stimulus presentations. They thus received equal exposure to, but no differential training on, the orientation dimension. An S+ only group of four subjects who received no exposure to the orientation stimuli showed no gradients when stimulus generalization testing on the hue continuum was carried out. The result is discussed in terms of transfer deriving from stimulus control by relational aspects of the stimuli; in terms of control by constant irrelevant stimuli; and in terms of the study of stimulus control in ESN(S) children. In Expt. II the influence of the codability of the colours on the location of the peak of the stimulus generalization gradients in the TD group is investigated.     

金钱奖赏对海洛因戒断者工作记忆刷新功能的促进作用减弱

采用有无金钱奖赏条件下的n-back任务，探讨金钱奖赏对海洛因戒断者工作记忆刷新功能的影响。结果发现：所有被试在金钱奖赏条件下的反应时都显著短于无奖赏条件下的反应时；海洛因戒断组在有无金钱奖赏条件下的反应时的差值显著小于正常组在有无金钱奖赏条件下的反应时的差值；在1-back和2-back任务中，正常组的正确率显著高于海洛因戒断组的正确率。结果表明：金钱奖赏对海洛因戒断者工作记忆刷新功能存在一定的促进作用，但是其促进作用幅度要弱于正常人；海洛因戒断者的工作记忆刷新功能可能存在损伤。     

Cognitive Factors Affecting the Use of Social Decision Heuristics in Resource-Sharing Tasks

Two experiments investigated the use of equal division as a social decision heuristic in a group resource-sharing task. We proposed that group members use equality as a decision heuristic to the extent that environmental cues making the rule salient are present and to the extent that competing cues are absent. In Study 1, subjects were provided with justification for being the first group member to withdraw resources from a common pool. The results showed that subjects for whom the justification was prototypical of resource-sharing situations were more likely to violate equality than were subjects with nonprototypical justifications. Study 2 investigated the extent to which arbitrary role assignments within a group affect choice behavior. As predicted, subjects assigned the role of "supervisor" made resource requests that exceeded an equal share, whereas subjects assigned the roles of either "leader" or "guide" made choices that corresponded almost precisely with equal division. Our results underscore the importance of examining implicit knowledge structures about resource-sharing situations and their implications for choice.     

Level of stress and sleep duration

30 subjects kept daily diaries of sleep-duration and stress levels for 4 mo. From these data, it was determined that during periods of high stress, sleep was reduced by about one standard deviation while during periods of low stress, sleep increased by about one-half a standard deviation. The relationship of these results to the relevant sleep-stress literature was briefly discussed.     

Landmark use by Clark’s nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana): influence of disorientation and cue rotation on distance and direction estimates

Many species have been shown to encode multiple sources of information to orient. To examine what kinds of information animals use to locate a goal we manipulated cue rotation, cue availability, and inertial orientation when the food-storing Clark’s nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) was searching for a hidden goal in a circular arena. Three groups of birds were used, each with a different goal–landmark distance. As the distance between the goal and the landmark increased, nutcrackers were less accurate in finding the correct direction to the goal than they were at estimating the distance (Experiment 1). To further examine what cues the birds were using to calculate direction, the featural cues within the environment were rotated by 90° and the birds were either oriented when searching (Experiments 2 and 3) or disoriented (Experiment 3). In Experiment 4, all distinctive visual cues were removed (both internal and external to the environment), a novel point of entry was used and the birds were either oriented or disoriented. We found that disorienting the nutcrackers so that they could not use inertial cues did not influence the birds’ total search error. The birds relied heavily but not completely on cues within the environment, as rotating available cues caused them to systematically shift their search behavior. In addition, the birds also relied to some extent on Earth-based cues. These results show the flexible nature of cue use by the Clark’s nutcracker. Our study shows how multiple sources of spatial information may be important for extracting multiple bearings for navigation.     

False autonomic feedback: Effects of attention to feedback on ratings of erotic stimuli

This study examines the roles played by sound track type, attention to sound track, and meaning of sound track in mediating the effects of false autonomic feedback on attractiveness ratings of erotic stimuli. Male subjects were instructed either to ignore or to pay attention to a pulsed or continuous sound track that was described either as heart-rate feedback or as a neutral auditory stimulus while slides of nude females were shown. Slides associated with a change in either the pulsed sound track or the continuous-tone sound track (increase slides) were subsequently rated as significantly more attractive than those associated with steady sound (stable slides). This effect was contingent on the meaning given to the auditory stimuli, with subjects in the heart-rate condition showing a stronger tendency to rate increase slides more positively than stable slides, by comparison with subjects in the neutral sounds condition. Within the heart-rate condition, subjects told to pay attention to the feedback showed greater rating differences between these two types of slide than those told to ignore it. This pattern of findings contrasts with those of an earlier experiment (Parkinson & Manstead, 1981), where differential unpleasantness ratings of slides of skin diseases depended on the attention paid to the sound track but not on its meaning. It is concluded that the effects of false autonomic feedback are contingent upon the kind of emotional stimuli that are presented.This article is based on research supported by the Economic and Social Research Council (UK). We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Andrew Gregory, who was responsible for the computer program used in generating the sound track, and we would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments on a previous version of this paper.     

Preselection in short-term motor memory.

Recent studies by Jones (1974) have posited that accurate movements in short-term motor memory (STMM) are mediated by the subject's ability to preset effector mechanisms and monitor their efferent output. Three experiments were conducted to examine this hypothesis. Experiment 1 involved comparisons between the reproduction of the end-location and the reproduction of the distance of a preselected movement. The results revealed that preselected location was superior to preselected distance, indicating that the efference attached to movement extent was not primary. Experiment 2 examined whether location cues were primarily encoded independent of the movement presentation mode. The subjects recalled target locations under preselected, constrained, and passive movement conditions. Recall in the preselected condition was superior to that in the constrained and passive conditions, which showed no difference, suggesting that afferent location information per se was not totally responsible for recall accuracy. Experiment 3 examined the processing requirements of preselected, constrained, and passive location information by filling the retention interval with interpolated processing activity. While preselected location was clearly superior, the three conditions were not differentially affected by processing activity. These overall findings were interpreted as contrary to Jones (1974) and pointed to the importance of preselection in short-term motor memory.     

Effects of a pairing contingency on behavior in a three-person programmed environment

Four groups of three subjects resided for 10 days within a continuously programmed environment. Subjects followed a behavioral program of contingently scheduled activities that determined individual and social behaviors. A triadic condition was in effect when all three subjects were required to select simultaneous access to a group area before it became available for a social episode. A dyadic condition was in effect when access to a group area was permitted to any combination of two, and only two, subjects. The effects of these two conditions on individual and social behaviors were studied in reversal designs with several successive days devoted to each condition. Results showed that durations of social activities and synchronization of individual activities were greater during triadic conditions than during dyadic conditions. Under both conditions, wake-sleep cycles departed from a typical day-night rhythm for most subjects. Instances when subjects did not respond to each others' attempts to initiate conversations using the intercom were generally more frequent during dyadic than triadic conditions. Physical distance during triadic social episodes was found to be related to sociability levels during dyadic conditions.     

短时记忆定向遗忘的负荷效应:来自ERP的证据

采用事件相关电位(ERPs)技术,通过一个短时记忆测试,考察记忆/遗忘线索在不同的工作记忆负荷条件下诱发的脑电差异。实验以字母和数字为刺激,要求被试记忆或遗忘不同数量的视觉信息。ERP结果发现:在线索呈现230~430ms的时间窗口,高负荷条件的遗忘线索比低负荷条件的遗忘线索诱发了更正的ERPs。这一结果表明,抑制机制在定向遗忘中有重要作用,抑制不同数量的信息需要不同数量的认知资源。     

Effects of motion parallax and perspective cues on perceived size and distance

In three experiments we examined the relative effectiveness of motion parallax and two perspective cues for the perception of size and distance. The experimental stimuli consisted of two ellipses (a standard and a comparison) and a horizontal line that indicated the horizon. The subject's task was to report the apparent size and distance of the comparison stimulus relative to the standard stimulus. Two perspective cues were given by the relative heights of the two stimuli and the absolute height of the standard stimulus below the horizon. Motion parallax was defined by both the ratio and the difference in angular velocities between the two stimuli on the display. In experiment 1 we examined the effects of the two perspective cues and the motion parallax. In experiment 2 we eliminated the horizon line, and examined the role of the horizon in size and distance perception. In experiment 3 we separately evaluated the effects of motion parallax and the relative height cues. The results from the three experiments showed that the effect of motion parallax and the two perspective cues were different in three ways. First, the relative effectiveness of motion parallax and the two perspective cues differed for size and distance estimates. For size estimates, the motion parallax was more effective than the perspective cues (experiments 1 and 3). For distance estimates, the motion parallax was as effective as the two perspective cues (experiments 1 and 3). Second, the role of the horizon differed for size and distance estimates. The size estimates were strongly affected by the horizon, while the distance estimates were not affected much by the horizon (experiment 2). Third, the effective perspective cues differed for the size estimates and the distance estimates: size estimates were affected by the perspective cues as a combination of the horizon and relative height; distance estimates were affected by the perspective cues as an interaction between the absolute and relative heights without the horizon line.     

The effects of “effort after meaning” on recall: Differences in within- and between-subjects designs

In four experiments, we examined free recall of ambiguous sentences with or without corresponding cues to facilitate comprehension, using Auble and Franks’s (1978) paradigm to examine effort after meaning (Bartlett, 1932). The ambiguous sentences were studied without cues, with cues meaningfully embedded in them, with cues provided shortly before the sentence (precue), or with cues following the sentence after several seconds (delayed cue). When these conditions were manipulated within subjects, the process of cue integration in the pre- and delayed-cue conditions enhanced recall, relative to the no-cue and embedded-cue conditions. Furthermore, in a test condition in which subjects first attempted to recall the cues alone, recall was also best in the delayed-cue condition. The effects described above did not occur when the cue presentation conditions varied between subjects, and on a test of order reconstruction, there was even an advantage for sentences studied in the embedded-cue condition over those studied in the delayed-cue condition. The dissociative effects of experimental design on sentence recall and order reconstruction suggest that effort after meaning might enhance memory for study items at the cost of impairing memory for temporal order information.