Fidgeting as self-evidencing: A predictive processing account of non-goal-directed action

Non-goal-directed actions have been relatively neglected in cognitive science, but are ubiquitous and related to important cognitive functions. Fidgeting is seemingly one subtype of non-goal-directed action which is ripe for a functional account. What's the point of fidgeting? The predictive processing framework is a parsimonious account of brain function which says the brain aims to minimise the difference between expected and actual states of the world and itself, that is, minimise prediction error. This framework situates action selection in terms of active inference for expected states. However, seemingly aimless, idle actions, such as fidgeting, are a challenge to such theories. When our actions are not obviously goal-achieving, how can a predictive processing framework explain why we regularly do them anyway? Here, we argue that in a predictive processing framework, evidence for the agent's own existence is consolidated by self-stimulation or fidgeting. Endogenous, repetitive actions reduce uncertainty about the system's own states, and thus help continuously maintain expected rates of prediction error minimisation. We extend this explanation to clinically distinctive self-stimulation, such as in Autism Spectrum Conditions, in which effective strategies for self-evidencing may be different to the neurotypical case.     

Dieting and Body Image in the Child's World: Conceptualization and Behavior

The authors examined children's (N = 431, aged 7 years to 10 years 9 months) understanding of and reasons for dieting, to validate recent research indicating that perceived body-image dissatisfaction and restrictive eating behaviors occur in preadolescent populations. Scores on 2 sentence-completion tasks confirmed that the children do have a clear understanding of what dieting means in terms of intent and behavior (defined, in this study, as intentional restrictive eating behaviors). The results indicated that children as young as 7 years of age report dissatisfaction with their current body size and deliberately engage in restrictive eating behaviors. These findings provide validation of previous research and emphasize children's capacity to engage in deleterious health behaviors. Given that extreme dieting behaviors are harmful to a child's physical and psychological well-being, the authors concluded that research exploring (a) the genesis of these attitudes and behaviors and (b) their continuity or discontinuity across childhood is required.     

The Caregiver Eating Messages Scale: Development and psychometric investigation

Certain caregiver eating messages – restriction of food intake and pressures to eat – are associated with body dissatisfaction and eating disturbances among young girls. This study explored whether these messages are also associated with body attitudes and eating behaviors of young adult women and men. The Caregiver Eating Messages Scale was developed to measure this construct. Two studies (Ns = 238, 288) indicated that it contained two factors (restrictive/critical messages and pressure to eat messages) and yielded internally consistent, stable, and valid scores. Both factors were positively related to women's BMI, and restrictive/critical messages were positively related to men's BMI. Restrictive/critical messages predicted lower perceived familial body acceptance and intuitive eating and higher perceived familial pressure to be lean and disordered eating. Restrictive/critical messages predicted participants’ body attitudes indirectly via their perceptions of their family's attitude toward their body, with one exception: restrictive/critical messages uniquely predicted men's body appreciation.     

The attention to body shape scale: a new measure of body focus

An abnormal degree of attention to one's body shape has been implicated in the development and maintenance of eating pathology. This article reports on three preliminary reliability and validity studies of the Attention to Body Shape Scale (ABS). Although brief, the ABS was found to be internally consistent and relatively stable over 2 weeks for both women and men. As expected, women were more body-focused on the ABS than were men. Preliminary validation studies on college women had encouraging results. Lending evidence of convergent validity, the ABS correlated with measures of eating pathology and dietary restraint. Moreover, although the ABS correlated with a measure of general-appearance orientation, regression analyses showed that the former was more closely linked than the latter to eating pathology. As evidence of discriminant validity, the ABS failed to correlate with dysphoria, body weight, or the tendency to eat in response to emotional or environmental pressures. As predicted by theory, high scores on the ABS were associated with body-image distortion. However, contrary to predictions, the ABS failed to moderate the impact of induced anxiety on body image on two of three measures. The implications of these findings and suggestions for future work are discussed.     

Division of Labor in Student Households: Gender Inequality,Perceived Justice,and Satisfaction

Two studies of households of students sharing flats (Study 1) and cohabitating student couples (Study 2) examined gender inequalities in the division of household labor and related differences in perceived justice of and satisfaction with the division. Results showed that women spent more time and made larger contributions to the majority of tasks in both types of households although male and female students did not differ in time availability and resources contributed to the household. Perceived justice was equally high with both sexes, but women were somewhat less satisfied than men. Both sexes regarded the division of household tasks more just the less it departed from an equal division. Gender role orientation moderated this correlation with men but not with women. Satisfaction ratings were positively correlated with perceived justice and negatively correlated with the relative size of participants' contributions to the household tasks.     

How interviewers' nonverbal behaviors can affect children's perceptions and suggestibility

We conducted two studies to examine how interviewers' nonverbal behaviors affect children's perceptions and suggestibility. In the first study, 42 8- to 10-year-olds watched video clips showing an interviewer displaying combinations of supportive and nonsupportive nonverbal behaviors and were asked to rate the interviewer on six attributes (e.g., friendliness, strictness). Smiling received high ratings on the positive attributes (i.e., friendly, helpful, and sincere), and fidgeting received high ratings on the negative attributes (i.e., strict, bored, and stressed). For the second study, 86 8- to 10-year-olds participated in a learning activity about the vocal chords. One week later, they were interviewed individually about the activity by an interviewer adopting either the supportive (i.e., smiling) or nonsupportive (i.e., fidgeting) behavior. Children questioned by the nonsupportive interviewer were less accurate and more likely to falsely report having been touched than were those questioned by the supportive interviewer. Children questioned by the supportive interviewer were also more likely to say that they did not know an answer than were children questioned by the nonsupportive interviewer. Participants in both conditions gave more correct answers to questions about central, as opposed to peripheral, details of the activity. Implications of these findings for the appropriate interviewing of child witnesses are discussed.     

Attention to errors and learning: Across-task and across-domain analysis of the postfailure reflectivity measure

The ratio between the mean postfailure and postsuccess latencies on a self-paced task (Postfailure Reflectivity) has been proposed as a measure of attention to errors, affecting learning across domains. This study was devised to test the generality of Postfailure Reflectivity (PFR). In Experiment 1, performance on two nonverbal, inference, and induction/deduction tasks was examined. Reading disabled subjects showed significantly less PFR than normally achieving subjects, and PFR correlated positively with the score in two nonverbal tasks, and across two testing times. In Experiment 2, PFR was significantly correlated with performance on two nonverbal tasks and one arithmetic task, and with measures of deep planning during interviews following the learning of a nonverbal inference task, as well as following motor and cognitive learning tasks. PFR also correlated with intentional learning, as measured on the Implicit Theories Interview. Jointly considered, these findings support the view that attention to errors plays a central role in learning, and that PFR is a good measure of attention to errors. It appears that Postfailure Reflectivity is a metacognitive skill which possesses adaptive, generalized, and trans-domain characteristics.     

Emotional, external, restrained eating and overweight in Dutch adolescents

The purpose of this study was to determine how emotional, external and restrained eating behavior and other health-related lifestyle factors were associated with being overweight in adolescents. Moreover, demographic and ethnic differences in eating behavior have been examined. The respondents were 10,087 Dutch adolescents aged 11-16 years (M= 13.0, SD= 0.8). Self-reported eating behavior was measured with the DEBQ. Health-related lifestyle was determined by physical activity, breakfasting, fruit consumption and snacking. High restrained, and low external eating were positively associated with being overweight, whereas no significant association between emotional eating and being overweight was found for girls, and a negative association for boys. Adolescents who ate breakfast on a daily basis were less likely to be overweight than those who ate breakfast irregularly or never. Being overweight was positively associated with fruit consumption for girls and negatively with physical activity for boys.     

Social and individual risk factors for suicide ideation among Chinese children and adolescents: A multilevel analysis

The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence and predictors of suicide ideation among primary, middle and high school students. We used multilevel modelling to investigate suicide ideation among 12,733 Chinese children and adolescents aged 9–18 years from wide range of areas across China. Approximately, 32.09% of children and adolescents reported suicide ideation, with females were more likely to report suicide ideation than males (38.09% vs. 29.95%). Our results showed that the risk factors in primary school students were different from middle and high school student groups, whereas significant risk factors for middle and high school students were similar. The city's standard of living as indicated by the Engel coefficient and the city's divorce rate were positively associated with the prevalence of suicide ideation; in contrast, the school's pupil‐to‐teacher ratio was negatively correlated with elevated suicide ideation. Significant risk factors for suicide ideation included study anxiety, self‐accusation tendency, impulsive tendency, terror tendency and physical symptoms. These results have important implications for the prevention of suicide, suggesting that both contextual (city‐level) and compositional (individual‐level) factors could be important targets for prevention and intervention for children and adolescents at risk of suicide ideation.     

Why Do You Regulate What You Eat? Relationships Between Forms of Regulation, Eating Behaviors, Sustained Dietary Behavior Change, and Psychological Adjustment

In 3 studies, the authors examined how autonomous and controlled forms of motivation for the regulation of eating behaviors were related to self-reported eating behaviors, and sustained dietary behavior change. Studies 1 and 2 supported the factorial structure and the psychometric properties of a scale designed to measure different forms of regulation as defined by Self-Determination Theory. A motivational model of the regulation of eating behaviors suggested that an autonomous regulation was positively associated with healthy eating behaviors whereas a controlled regulation was positively associated with dysfunctional eating behaviors and negatively associated with healthy eating behaviors. In Study 3, long-term adherence to healthier dietary behaviors in a population at risk for coronary artery disease was examined over a 26-week period. A general measure of self-determined motivation assessed at week 1 was found to be a reliable predictor of the level of self-determination for eating behaviors 13 weeks later. In turn, self-determination for eating behaviors was a significant predictor of dietary behavior changes at 26 weeks. Finally, the dietary behavior measures were related to improvements in weight and blood lipid parameters (LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides). Results are discussed in terms of their implication for the integration and maintenance of a successful healthy regulation.     

Attributes of successful approaches to weight loss and control

Most weight loss treatments result in only temporary losses, followed by slow regain. This paper examines those factors that are correlated with the most favorable results in terms of loss and maintenance of loss. Weight loss is positively related to self-monitoring, goal setting, social support, and length of treatment. Maintenance of weight loss is correlated with regular physical activity, self-monitoring, and continued contact with therapists. Regain is associated with inconsistent and restrictive dieting, life stress, negative coping style, and emotional or binge eating patterns. The implications drawn from these findings are (a) normalize eating patterns, (b) emphasize exercise, (c) ensure social support, (d) set realistic goal weights, (e) focus on health rather than appearance, (f) focus on self-esteem, and (g) target binge eating.     

A sexual and a marital defensiveness scale for each sex

Abstract

A scale to measure defensiveness about the marital relationship and another to measure defensiveness about the sexual relationship of couples were developed for each sex. Defensiveness was defined as the tendency to endorse socially desirable items which are unlikely to occur and deny socially undesirable items which characterize most honest responders. The social desirability scale value of the items was empirically determined, and a traditional cross-validation design with two independent groups was used in the item analyses. Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient ranged between. 75 and 93 for the male and female versions of the scales. The scales correlated higher with another defensiveness scale than with a social desirability scale. Clinicians' ratings of the items in the scales suggested that the scales were not diagnostic of sexual or marital psychopa-thology. Evidence is presented to support that these content specific scales surpass a global defensiveness scale as a measure of defensiveness regarding the sexual or marital relationship of couples.     

Nothing gained: An explorative study of the long‐term effects of perceived maternal feeding practices on women's and men's adult BMI,body image dissatisfaction,and disordered eating

The objective of the studies presented here was the prediction of adult body mass index (BMI), body image dissatisfaction, and disordered eating from recalled maternal child feeding practices. Studies 1 and 2 sampled women from the community, and found that recalled childhood feeding practices predicted both current BMI and current disordered eating. Daughters whose mothers pressured them to eat as children had lower BMIs as adults. The more a mother was concerned about her daughter's weight as a child, and the more she restricted fatty food intake, the less the woman was satisfied with her current body image. Disordered eating of adult women was positively related to their mothers' restriction of their fatty food intake as children, and negatively related to the mothers' monitoring of their food intake as children. Combining the samples and subdividing them into four BMI intervals showed that the obese women were higher on all but one of the recalled maternal child feeding practices, as well as on disordered eating and body dissatisfaction. Age was found to be positively related to BMI and drive for thinness, but not to body dissatisfaction or disordered eating, with older women having higher BMI and more drive for thinness. Study 3 sampled adult men from the community and found that recalled maternal child feeding practices predicted adult BMI and disordered eating for men, as well as for women. Considerable sex differences were found for all study variables. Recollection of maternal child feeding practices may have a formative role in the development of body image, disordered eating, and BMI for men and women, even into adulthood.     

Perceived facial adiposity conveys information about women's health

Although several prominent theories of human facial attractiveness propose that some facial characteristics convey information about people's health, empirical evidence for this claim is somewhat mixed. While most previous research into this issue has focused on facial characteristics such as symmetry, averageness, and sexual dimorphism, a recent study reported that ratings of facial adiposity (i.e., perceptions of fatness in the face) were positively correlated with indices of poor physical condition in a sample of young adults (i.e., reported past health problems and measures of cardiovascular fitness). These findings are noteworthy, since they suggest that perceived adiposity is a potentially important facial cue of health that has been overlooked by much of the previous work in this area. Here, we show that ratings of young adult women's facial adiposity are (1) better predicted by their body weight than by their body shape (Studies 1 and 2), (2) correlated with a composite measure of their physical and psychological condition (Study 2), and (3) negatively correlated with their trait (i.e., average) salivary progesterone levels (Study 3). Together, these findings present further evidence that perceived facial adiposity, or a correlate thereof, conveys potentially important information about women's actual health.     

Alienation Among the Visually Impaired: Some Important Predictors

We evaluated the effectiveness of a nondiet approach designed to reduce restrained eating behaviors and improve self-acceptance and self-esteem. This approach also encourages participants to address eating and exercise behavior separately. Subjects were Conoco employees who participated in the Wellness Department's Eat For L.I.F.E. (Long-term change; Image of self; Fun; Enjoyment of eating) program and completed pre-participation and 3-year follow-up questionnaires (N = 79). Pre- and postsurvey data were used to assess participants eating behavior, dieting behavior, self-acceptance, self-esteem, level of physical activity, and demographic information. Mastery of the internally directed eating style was assessed during the program at 3 months, at the conclusion of the 6-month program, and at the 3-year follow-up. Analysis of variance indicated that Eat For L.I.F.E. participants were able to significantly decrease their restrained eating behavior and increase self-acceptance, self-esteem, and level of physical activity. Participants also were able to adopt many aspects of the nonrestrained, internally directed eating style and decrease their frequency of weighing-in behavior. These results indicate that strategies fostering internally directed eating behaviors may be more centrally related to an individual's well-being than programs supporting externally directed eating behaviors.     

Spontaneous Focusing on Quantitative Relations in the Development of Children's Fraction Knowledge

While preschool-aged children display some skills with quantitative relations, later learning of related fraction concepts is difficult for many students. We present two studies that investigate young children's tendency of Spontaneous Focusing On quantitative Relations (SFOR), which may help explain individual differences in the development of fraction knowledge. In the first study, a cross-sectional sample of 84 kindergarteners to third graders completed tasks measuring their spontaneous recognition and use of quantitative relations and then completed the tasks again with explicit guidance to focus on quantitative relations. Findings suggest that SFOR is a measure of the spontaneous focusing of attention on quantitative relations and the use of these relations in reasoning. In the second (longitudinal) study, 25 first graders completed measures of SFOR tendency and a measure of fraction knowledge three years later. SFOR tendency was found to predict fraction knowledge, suggesting that it plays a role in the development of fraction knowledge.     

Detecting true lies: police officers' ability to detect suspects' lies

Ninety-nine police officers, not identified in previous research as belonging to groups that are superior in lie detection, attempted to detect truths and lies told by suspects during their videotaped police interviews. Accuracy rates were higher than those typically found in deception research and reached levels similar to those obtained by specialized lie detectors in previous research. Accuracy was positively correlated with perceived experience in interviewing suspects and with mentioning cues to detecting deceit that relate to a suspect's story. Accuracy was negatively correlated with popular stereotypical cues such as gaze aversion and fidgeting. As in previous research, accuracy and confidence were not significantly correlated, but the level of confidence was dependent on whether officers judged actual truths or actual lies and on the method by which confidence was measured.     

Ethnic identity,thin-ideal internalization,and eating pathology in ethnically diverse college women

Although much research suggests that ethnic identity is positively correlated with psychological health for ethnic minority women, research examining ethnic identity's relationships to thin-ideal internalization, weight concerns, and eating concerns is sparse. Consequently, this study examined these relationships in European American, African American, Latina, and Asian American college women (N = 816). As expected, univariate analyses of variance indicated that European American women scored lowest on ethnic identity and highest on eating and weight concerns, whereas African American women scored lowest on thin-ideal internalization. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that ethnic identity was negatively associated with eating and weight concerns, while body mass index and thin-ideal internalization were positively associated. Ethnic identity moderated the relationship between thin-ideal internalization and eating concerns such that the relationship was stronger for participants with lower ethnic identity. These results suggest ethnic identity may be a direct or interactive protective factor against eating concerns in ethnically diverse college women.     

Are errors in false belief tasks symptomatic of a broader difficulty with counterfactuality?

When children acknowledge false belief they are handling a counterfactual situation. In three experiments 3-and 4-year-old children were given false belief tasks and physical state tasks which required similar handling of counterfactual situations but which did not require understanding about beliefs or representations: Children were asked to report what the state of the world might be now had an earlier event not occurred. The incidence of realist errors in the false belief and physical state tasks was significantly correlated independently of shared correlations with chronological age and receptive verbal ability. In a fourth experiment, children made significantly fewer realist errors when asked to infer a future hypothetical state. These results provide preliminary evidence consistent with the suggestion that pre-school children's difficulty with false belief is symptomatic of a more general difficulty entertaining counterfactual situations.     

Self-evaluation maintenance and the perception of friends and strangers

A self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model was used to make predictions about the positivity of perception of the performance of friends and strangers. The model predicts that when the target of perception is close (i.e., a friend) the target's performance should be perceived more positively on dimensions of low personal relevance (to the perceiver) and less positively on dimensions of high personal relevance. If the target is psychologically distant (i.e., a stranger), this tendency should be attenuated. Thirty-four female subjects were given positive and negative feedback on a social sensitivity and an esthetic judgment task. One task had greater relevance for some subjects and the other task had greater relevance for the remaining subjects. Subjects rated their perception of a friend's and a stranger's performance on these tasks. The patterning of positivity in perception conformed to the pattern predicted by the SEM model. Subjects' awareness of their behavior as well as individual differences in self-esteem and repression-sensitization were also examined and discussed.