Driving simulation sickness and the sense of presence: Correlation and contributing factors

Driving simulators are useful and effective tools for conducting studies in the field of traffic safety. Simulation sickness (SS) and the sense of presence (SP) are two well-known factors that could affect the results of the driving simulator experiments. This study investigated the relationship between SP and SS in a medium-fidelity driving simulator. Additionally, the impact of the road environment (urban arterials or rural expressways) on these subscales was investigated. Data was collected by means of self-reported questionnaires, which were conducted after the participants have driven the simulation scenarios in a fixed-base medium-fidelity driving simulator. A total of 125 drivers participated in this study. Results showed that females reported significantly higher SS scores than males. An increasing trend in the SS was observed with the increase of age. Importantly, designing buildings that replicate a real-world environment could increase SP and decrease SS. Moreover, designing high quality and resolution scenarios could also increase SP, thus decreasing the severity of SS symptoms. The results of this study can help researchers using medium-fidelity driving simulators to know the influencing factors for each subscale of SP on SS. Adjustments in the driving simulator and scenario settings as well as additional training exercises for higher speed scenarios can be beneficial in reducing the severity of SS.     

Risk profiles in novice road users: Relation between moped riding simulator performance,on-road aberrant behaviors and dangerous driving

The aim of this study was to compare the scores obtained by an Italian sample of novice drivers/riders on an adapted version of the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) and the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) with their performance in a moped-riding simulator. Cluster analysis on the indexes extracted by the simulator were used to identify two groups with opposite riding styles: Prudent riders and Imprudent riders.Using the DBQ, our data not only confirmed data in the literature indicating that females reported more driving Errors than males, and that males reported higher Intended Violation scores than females, but also showed that gender effects are modulated by riding style (as measured by the simulator) and driving exposure. Differences between males’ and females’ DBQ scores were only apparent for Imprudent riders, while the reported Errors, Slips and Lapses, and Violations were lower the higher the driving exposure.As for the DDDI, males scored higher than females for Risky Driving, and the Aggressive Driving scores were higher the greater the driving exposure, but only for Imprudent riders.These results provide crucial information for the use of DBQ and DDDI questionnaires in the Italian population. They also confirm that a multidimensional approach, supported by the use of driving simulators, may facilitate a more detailed assessment of riding abilities.     

Driving anger and its relationship with aggressive driving among Chinese drivers

Driving anger poses a serious threat to road safety. Increasing attention is being paid on this issue, with driving anger usually measured by a 14-item version of the Driving Anger Scale (short DAS). However, driving anger problem in China has received limited research attention and there is no corresponding Chinese version of the short DAS. This study adapted the short DAS for use with Chinese drivers and investigated the relationship between driving anger and aggressive driving with an Internet-based survey conducted to a sample of Chinese drivers. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis results showed that a three-factor DAS structure provided a good fit to the data obtained, with the three subscales used being hostile gesture, safety-blocking and arrival-blocking. The hostile gesture subscale and arrival-blocking subscale were positive predictors while the safety-blocking subscale was a negative predictor of aggressive driving. In China, the overall driving anger was lower but its association with aggressive driving was stronger, than that in western countries. These findings provide important insights into causes and consequences of driving anger for the development of effective strategies to reduce driving anger and to enhance road safety.     

Instruction-prompted objective behaviors as proxy for subjective measures in a driving simulator

Interactions with other road users and interpretations of traffic situations are important aspects of driving safety. Self-reports are often used to study drivers’ perceptions and attitudes but self-reports can be inaccurate and biased because of socially desirable responding. Driving simulators offer objective measures of driver behaviors but have limited ability to elicit natural behaviors. To address this issue, we tested a driving simulator-based approach that combined realistic driving scenarios including potentially frustrating forward obstacles and delays in travel time with two different types of instructions. Participants' vehicle control behaviors and subjective perception of traffic delays were compared. Results demonstrated that behaviors collected following instructions to drive safely did not have significant associations with participants’ perceptions of the traffic delays while participants following instructions to drive quickly demonstrated behaviors that were predictive of their subjective perceptions of the traffic delays. The findings suggest that vehicle control behaviors can be used as a proxy for subjective perceptions of traffic delays. We conclude that driving simulator methodology combining instructions, realistic traffic scenarios, and adaptive analytical methods is appropriate for studying drivers’ behaviors and interactions with other road users and can minimize the need to rely on subjective self-reports.     

Comparing simulator sickness in younger and older adults during simulated driving under different multisensory conditions

Driving simulators are valuable tools for traffic safety research as they allow for systematic reproductions of challenging situations that cannot be easily tested during real-world driving. Unfortunately, simulator sickness (i.e., nausea, dizziness, etc.) is common in many driving simulators and may limit their utility. The experience of simulator sickness is thought to be related to the sensory feedback provided to the user and is also thought to be greater in older compared to younger users. Therefore, the present study investigated whether adding auditory and/or motion cues to visual inputs in a driving simulator affected simulator sickness in younger and older adults. Fifty-eight healthy younger adults (age 18–39) and 63 healthy older adults (age 65+) performed a series of simulated drives under one of four sensory conditions: (1) visual cues alone, (2) combined visual + auditory cues (engine, tire, wind sounds), (3) combined visual + motion cues (via hydraulic hexapod motion platform), or (4) a combination of all three sensory cues (visual, auditory, motion). Simulator sickness was continuously recorded while driving and up to 15 min after driving session termination. Results indicated that older adults experienced more simulator sickness than younger adults overall and that females were more likely to drop out and drove for less time compared to males. No differences between sensory conditions were observed. However, older adults needed significantly longer time to fully recover from the driving session than younger adults, particularly in the visual-only condition. Participants reported that driving in the simulator was least realistic in the visual-only condition compared to the other conditions. Our results indicate that adding auditory and/or motion cues to the visual stimulus does not guarantee a reduction of simulator sickness per se, but might accelerate the recovery process, particularly in older adults.     

The relationship between simulator sickness and driving performance in a high-fidelity simulator

Driving simulators are highly valuable tools for various applications such as research, training, and rehabilitation. However, they are also known to cause simulator sickness, a special form of traditional motion sickness. Common side effects of simulator sickness include nausea, headache, dizziness, eye-strain, and/or disorientation, all symptoms which may negatively impact driving performance. The goal of the present study was to investigate the relationship between simulator sickness and driving performance obtained in a high-fidelity driving simulator. Twenty-one healthy participants were engaged in a simulated driving task containing rural, city, and highway sections for approx. 25 min. Participants were asked to drive naturally while obeying traffic rules and completing common driving maneuvers (including reactions to sudden events). Driving performance was evaluated based on various driving measures, such as lane positioning, speed measures, following distance, or the number of steering reversals. Simulator sickness was measured before, during, and after the simulated drive using a combination of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire and the Fast Motion Sickness scale. Overall, correlations between the level of simulator sickness and driving performance measures were low to moderate (r’s from -0.37 to 0.40) and were not significant. Additionally, participants who reported higher levels of simulator sickness did not differ with regards to their driving performance from those who reported lower simulator sickness scores. Our results suggest that the presence of simulator sickness is not strongly related to performance in a driving simulator.     

A validation study of driving errors using a driving simulator

BackgroundDriving simulators have become an important research tool in road safety. They provide a safer environment to test driving performance and have the capacity to manipulate and control situations that are not possible on-road.AimTo validate a laboratory-based driving simulator in measuring on-road driving performance by type and mean driving errors.MethodsParticipants were instructed to drive a selected route on-road. The same route was programmed in the driving simulator using the UC/Win-road software. All participants completed a background questionnaire. On-road driving behaviours of participants and driving behaviours in the simulator were assessed by an occupational therapist and two trained researchers using an assessment form. Interclass correlations were calculated to assess the inter-rater agreement between the researchers on driving behaviours. Paired t-tests were used to assess differences in driving performance between the simulator and on-road assessments.ResultsA convenience sample of 47 drivers aged 18–69 years who held a current Western Australian class C licence (passenger vehicle) were recruited into the study. The mean age was 34.80 years (SD: 13.21) with twenty-six males (55.32%) and 21 females (44.68%) completing the study. There was no statistical difference between the on-road assessment and the driving simulator for mirror checking, left, right and forward observations, speed at intersections, maintaining speed, obeying traffic lights and stop signs.ConclusionThe preliminary results provide early support for the relative validity of the driving simulator which may be used for a variety of road safety outcomes with reduced risk of harm to participants.     

Exploring behavioral validity of driving simulator under time pressure driving conditions of professional drivers

Driving simulators have become an important tool in human factors research, given that they are appropriately validated. Therefore, this study aims to explore the behavioral (absolute and relative) validity of a fixed-base driving simulator by analyzing different driving behavior measures such as speed, longitudinal acceleration, lateral acceleration, and brake pedal force. Thirty professional drivers participated in the experiment and the data was collected in real and simulated worlds under No Time Pressure (NTP) and Time Pressure (TP) driving conditions. Initially, comparative analyses were conducted on different driving behavior measures using Wilcoxon-signed rank test to examine absolute validity of the driving simulator. Finally, Generalized Linear Mixed (GLM) models were developed for computing the effective distance between real and simulated worlds by quantifying the parameters and for establishing relative validity. In general, the continuous profiles of driving behavior measures followed similar trends in real and simulated worlds and comparative analyses indicated relative validity of the driving simulator. The GLM models showed significant interaction effect of driving environments (real-world and simulated world) and driving conditions (NTP and TP) where high driving speed, high brake pedal force, and low lateral acceleration were observed in simulated world under TP driving condition than real-world under TP driving condition. Overall, the statistical analyses showed qualitative correspondence (relative validity) of the driving behavior measures in between real and simulated worlds. The findings from the current study showed expediency of the driving simulator and its effectiveness in conducting research on human factors and driver safety.     

Validation of the F-DBQ: A short (and accurate) risky driving behavior questionnaire for long-haul professional drivers

Although the Driving Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) remains the most known tool for assessing risky road behaviors among motor vehicle drivers, recent studies have raised several concerns on the specificity of both driving task conditions and behavioral repertory of certain segments of the driving population. Among them, long-haul (cargo) professional drivers constitute one of the “intensive driving” groups for which the existing adapted behavioral research tools are still very scarce.PurposeThe aim of the present study was to test and validate the F-DBQ (or “Freight Driving Behavior Questionnaire”), a short version of the DBQ adapted to the occupational driving conditions and typical road risk behaviors of freight drivers.MethodFor this cross-sectional study, a sample of n = 982 Spanish long-haul drivers with a mean age of 48.5 years was used, responding to a questionnaire composed of measures on road risk behaviors (DBQ), fatigue (Checklist Individual Strength – CIS and Need for Recovery Scale – NFR) and job stress (Effort–Reward Imbalance questionnaire – ERI).ResultsThrough competitive Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) with structural equation models, it was found that the F-DBQ has a clear dimensional structure, a fair goodness-of-fit, high factorial weights, internal consistency, convergent and discriminant validity and an improved fit to long haul drivers’ working conditions. Also, both (general and work-related) fatigue and job stress have shown to have a significant role in explaining risky road behaviors of long-haul drivers.ConclusionThe findings of this study support that an abbreviated version of the Driving Behavior Questionnaire (the F-DBQ) can be used to assess traffic violations and errors among long-haul drivers, in consideration of their specific task-related conditions (that qualitatively differ from other groups of drivers), with potential implications on the enforcement of occupational and road safety research.     

Driving anger scale validation: Relationship of driving anger with the aberrant driving behaviour of truck drivers

Truck-related accidents in China have substantially increased. Truck driver safety issues have elicited considerable attention from transportation safety researchers. Driving anger is one of the most important factors that influence driving behaviour. However, little knowledge about the driving anger of truck drivers was available in the relevant literature. This study aimed to (1) provide empirical data about the driving anger of truck drivers, (2) examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of the driving anger scale (DAS) with a sample of truck drivers and (3) explore how the driving anger of truck drivers predicts their aberrant driving behaviour. The three-part survey data from 475 randomly selected truck drivers were collected in this study. The self-reported aberrant driving behaviour that was measured with the driving behaviour questionnaire was predicted by the drivers’ DAS ratings. One-factor structure and three-factor structure of the DAS were tested for Chinese truck drivers. Results indicated that the one-factor structure of the six-item DAS was more suitable for truck drivers than the three-factor structure. The factor structure of the DAS for Chinese truck drivers was consistent with the structure of the original version by Deffenbacher, Oetting, and Lynch (1994). The internal consistency, convergent validity and criterion-related validity of the six-item DAS were acceptable. Driving anger amongst truck drivers can be used to predict their aberrant driving behaviour. This study identified several practical implications to reduce the driving anger of truck drivers and consequently improve their driving behaviour.     

The utility of the AusEd driving simulator in the clinical assessment of driver fatigue

Several driving simulators have been developed which range in complexity from PC based driving tasks to advanced "real world" simulators. The AusEd driving simulator is a PC based task, which was designed to be conducive to and test for driver fatigue. This paper describes the AusEd driving simulator in detail, including the technical requirements, hardware, screen and file outputs, and analysis software. Some aspects of the test are standardized, while others can be modified to suit the experimental situation. The AusEd driving simulator is sensitive to performance decrement from driver fatigue in the laboratory setting, potentially making it useful as a laboratory or office based test for driver fatigue risk management. However, more research is still needed to correlate laboratory based simulator performance with real world driving performance and outcomes.     

The behavioral validity of dual-task driving performance in fixed and moving base driving simulators

Next generation automotive hardware and user interfaces are increasingly pre-tested in driving simulators. What are the potential limitations of such simulations? We determined the relative and absolute validity of five different driving simulators at the Daimler AG by evaluating five functions of an in-vehicle system based on the guideline of the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers (2006). The simulations were compared to on-road driving. We hypothesized that not only simulator characteristics, but also user characteristics, such as simulator sickness, gender, or age, influence behavioral validity. Even though relating simulator characteristics and user characteristics to driving performance across different driving simulators and driving tasks is difficult, our results are surprisingly in line with the current body of research. We demonstrate the usefulness of all simulators on a relative and partially on an absolute level with moving-base simulators being preferable to fixed-base simulators. As hypothesized, we showed that simulator sickness was significantly associated with impaired performance. In the fixed-base simulators, we found a significant interaction between age and gender, which we could not find in moving-base simulators and in the on-road study. Explanations for our findings and practical implications are discussed.     

Sequential dependencies in driving

The effect of recent experience on current behavior has been studied extensively in simple laboratory tasks. We explore the nature of sequential effects in the more naturalistic setting of automobile driving. Driving is a safety-critical task in which delayed response times may have severe consequences. Using a realistic driving simulator, we find significant sequential effects in pedal-press response times that depend on the history of recent stimuli and responses. Response times are slowed up to 100 ms in particular cases, a delay that has dangerous practical consequences. Further, we observe a significant number of history-related pedal misapplications, which have recently been noted as a cause for concern in the automotive safety community. By anticipating these consequences of sequential context, driver assistance systems could mitigate the effects of performance degradations and thus critically improve driver safety.     

Drivers’ performances and their subjective feelings about their driving during a 40-min test on a circuit versus a dynamic simulator

Car manufacturers expect driving simulators to be reliable research and development tools. Questions arise, however, as to whether drivers’ behavior on simulators exactly matches that observed when they are driving real cars. Drivers’ performances and their subjective feelings about their driving were compared between two groups during a 40-min driving test on the same circuit in a real car (n = 20) and a high-fidelity dynamic simulator (n = 27). Their speed and its variability, the braking force and the engine revolutions per minute (rpm) were recorded five times on a straight line and three times on a curve. The differences observed in these measurements between circuit driving (CD) and simulator driving (SD) from the 6th to 40th minute showed no significant changes during the drive. The drivers also completed the NASA Raw Task Load Index (NASA RTLX) questionnaire and the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) and estimated the ease and standard of their own driving performances. These subjective feelings differed significantly between the two groups throughout the experiment. The SD group’s scores on the NASA RTLX and SSQ questionnaires increased with time and the CD group’s perceived driving quality and ease increased with time, reaching non-significantly different levels from their usual car driving standards by the end of the drive. These findings show the existence of a fairly good match between real-life and simulated driving, which stabilized six minutes after the start of the test, regardless of whether the road was straight or curved. These objective findings and subjective assessments suggest possible ways of improving the match between drivers’ performances on simulators and their real-life driving behavior.     

Aggressive thinking on the road. The mediation effect of aggressive thinking in the relationship between driving anger and aggression in Romanian drivers

Anger and aggression on the road have been pointed out as two of the main predictors of road accidents. However, while the emotional (anger) and behavioral (aggression) components of hostility have been deeply studied, the cognitive part has not received the same attention in this specific context. Thus, it is important to provide psychometric tools for assessing aggressive thoughts during driving, as the literature showed that cognitions play an important role in aggressive behavior. To this end, we asked Romanian drivers to answer three questionnaires: Driving Anger Thought Questionnaire (DATQ), the Driving Anger Scale (DAS) and the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX), obtaining a total sample of 2133 answers. First, the psychometric properties of the DATQ were tested through a Confirmatory Factor Analysis, showing that the original 5-factor structure was maintained (Judgmental/Disbelieving Thinking, α = .93 both in men and women; Pejorative Labeling/Verbally Aggressive Thinking, α = .90 both in men and women; Physically Aggressive Thinking, α = .89 in men and α = .86 in women; Revenge/Retaliatory Thinking, α = .84 in men and α = .81 in women, and Adaptive/Constructive Expression, α = .84 in men and α = .82 in women). Then, we analyzed the mediation effect of angry thoughts between anger and aggression on the road, concluding that angry thoughts mediate this relationship. The main implications of the results are discussed.     

NAV: A tool for producing presentation quality animations of graphical cognitive model dynamics

Computational models of cognition often exhibit complex dynamics that are difficult to discern without the use of visualization tools. Current tools often provide insight only to the modeling expert, however, and they provide limited functionality for communicating model dynamics to the nonexpert, as is needed during scientific presentations and in educational settings. We present NAV, the Node Activity Visualizer, an easy-to-use and portable software tool that interactively transforms the output of cognitive modeling simulators into presentation quality animations of model performance. nt]mis|The members of the Vanderbilt University Computational Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory for their helpful comments.     

The relationship between cognitive function and hazard perception in younger drivers

Driving is a complex task; with research suggesting cognitive function plays a significant role in driver behaviour. Recent studies have investigated the role of cognitive function in younger drivers who are experiencing brain maturation and are over-represented in crash statistics. Emerging evidence suggests poor cognitive functioning is one explanation for this high crash risk. For younger drivers, the relationship between cognitive function and driving ability has been consistently shown for speeding and lane deviations. However, the driving skill most consistently linked to crash involvement is hazard perception, which is the ability to anticipate and respond to potentially dangerous traffic situations. The aim of this study was to investigate the cognitive correlates of hazard perception in younger drivers. Seventy-nine undergraduate students completed a hazard perception test and a battery of cognitive tests that have previously demonstrated a relationship with safe driving. The newly created hazard perception test measured accuracy of hazard identification, response times when anticipating the hazard, and response times when taking action to avoid the hazard. Hazard perception accuracy was significantly related to visuo-spatial skills, executive functioning and global cognitive status. Anticipation response times were significantly related to inhibitory control, with no significant relationship found between cognitive function and action response times. These findings are discussed in line with limitations in the study. Future research into the role of specific cognitive domains could lead to the enhancement of hazard perception testing for licensing with cognitive training and assessment, with the potential to reduce the crash risk of vulnerable younger drivers.     

Driving after use of alcohol and marijuana in college students.

Driving after use of marijuana is almost as common as driving after use of alcohol in youth (P. M. O'Malley & L. D. Johnston, 2003). The authors compared college students' attitudes, normative beliefs and perceived negative consequences of driving after use of either alcohol or marijuana and tested these cognitive factors as risk factors for substance-related driving. Results indicated that youth perceived driving after marijuana use as more acceptable to peers and the negative consequences as less likely than driving after alcohol use, even after controlling for substance use. Results of zero-inflated Poisson regression analyses indicated that lower perceived dangerousness and greater perceived peer acceptance were associated with increased engagement in, and frequency of, driving after use of either substance. Lower perceived likelihood of negative consequences was associated with increased frequency for those who engage in substance-related driving. These results provide a basis for comparing how youth perceive driving after use of alcohol and marijuana, as well as similarities in the risk factors for driving after use of these substances.