A comparison of game theory and learning theory

It is shown that Estes' formula for the asymptotic behavior of a subject under conditions of partial reinforcement can be derived from the assumption that the subject is behaving rationally in a certain game-theoretic sense and attempting to minimax his regret. This result illustrates the need for specifying the frame of reference or set of the subject when using the assumption of rationality to predict his behavior.     

Parent-offspring conflict theory: an evolutionary framework for understanding conflict within human families

Decades of research demonstrate that conflict shapes and permeates a broad range of family processes. In the current article, we argue that greater insight, integration of knowledge, and empirical achievement in the study of family conflict can be realized by utilizing a powerful theory from evolutionary biology that is barely known within psychology: parent-offspring conflict theory (POCT). In the current article, we articulate POCT for psychological scientists, extend its scope by connecting it to the broader framework of life history theory, and draw out its implications for understanding conflict within human families. We specifically apply POCT to 2 instances of early mother-offspring interaction (prenatal conflict and weaning conflict); discuss the effects of genetic relatedness on behavioral conflict between parents, children, and their siblings; review the emerging literature on parent-offspring conflict over the choice of mates and spouses; and examine parent-offspring conflict from the perspective of imprinted genes. This review demonstrates the utility of POCT, not only for explaining what is known about conflict within families but also for generating novel hypotheses, suggesting new lines of research, and moving us toward the "big picture" by integrating across biological and psychological domains of knowledge.     

Anger,aggression, and humor in newfoundland floor hockey: An evolutionary analysis

This paper examines patterns of anger, aggression, and humor during 95 floor hockey games in a small fishing village in Newfoundland. The observed behaviors meet the prediction, based on evolutionary theory, that anger and aggression will be more frequent among males at the age when mate competition is most intense. Aggression was also found to be combined with humor most frequently in interactions among players attempting to form social relationships. This last finding is consistent with the hypothesis that combining humor (smiling and laughing) with what would otherwise be interpreted as aggressive behavior is a means of establishing trusting relationships between individuals. The potential contribution of an evolutionary approach to studies of anger and aggression is discussed. ©1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The intelligence of the Mongoloids: A psychometric, evolutionary and neurological theory

This paper presents a theory of the intelligence of the Mongoloids consisting of three linked sub-theories. The first concerns the psychometric features of Mongoloid intelligence and proposes that Mongoloids are characterised by high general intelligence (Spearman's g), high visuospatial abilities and low verbal abilities. Mongoloid abilities also display slow maturation in infancy and early childhood. It is proposed that this pattern of abilities cannot be explained in environmental terms and should be regarded as substantially genetically programmed. The second sub-theory presents an evolutionary explanation for this pattern of abilities in Mongoloids, whereby it is proposed that the extreme cold of the ice ages acted as a selection pressure for increases in Spearman's g and the visuospatial abilities. The low verbal abilities and slow maturation rates are interpreted as by-products of these adaptations. The third sub-theory presents a neurological model for the Mongoloid brain in which it is proposed that cortex devoted to the visuospatial abilities was expanded at the expense of the cortex devoted to the verbal abilities. The implication that there exists a negative correlation between the visuospatial abilities and the verbal abilities is considered in the concluding part of the paper and shown to be correct.     

The phylogeny fallacy: Developmental psychology's misapplication of evolutionary theory

The habit of thinking about ontogeny and phylogeny as alternative means by which information is made available to the developing individual has a long history in both biology and psychology. This article examines existing proximate (ontogenetic) and ultimate (preontogenetic) approaches to the study of human development and describes an alternative, developmental systems approach for directing research programs. On this view, phenotypes are not simply transmitted in the genes, nor are they contained in features of the environment. Rather, traits or characters are always constructed by the complex coaction of organic, organismic, and environmental factors operating during individual ontogeny. This expanded, systematic view of heredity and phenotypic development serves to eliminate the need for the dichotomization of developmental explanations into proximate and ultimate causes and directs research attention to the organism-context transaction process, thereby including a large class of variables typically omitted from preontogenetic explanations of development.     

Good-behavior game: a replication and systematic analysis

A good-behavior game was implemented in a fifth-grade reading class consisting of two groups of 14 students each. After the presentation of the game, reversal and component analysis phases were instituted. Game components included rules, lights (response feedback), and group consequences of extra recess and extra free time. Student observers recorded the dependent variables which included talking-out, disruptive, and out-of-seat behaviors. The results show that the game reduced the dependent measures from their baseline rate by almost 99% for one group and 97% for the other. The component analysis revealed that after association in the game, the stimulus components of rules and lights were effective in reducing the dependent behaviors.     

The influences of evolutionary theory on Pareto's sociology

This paper argues that the influence of evolutionary theory on the sociology of Vilfredo Pareto has been generally misunderstood or overlooked, largely on account of Pareto's own contemptuous rejection of “finalist” Darwinian evolution. But the sources of Pareto's evolutionary ideas were French, not English. Neo-Lamarckian notions of inheritance and the related concept of degeneration helped support Pareto's explanation of social evolution, especially as it is developed in his early sociological works. Understanding these influences helps explain Pareto's peculiarly pessimistic account of the mechanism of social change in modern society.     

The general factor of personality: Evaluating the evidence from meta-analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and evolutionary theory

It has been argued that a general factor of personality exists and has resulted from evolutionary selection. This is based to a large extent on the results of confirmatory factor analyses on data produced from meta-analyses of correlations between Big Five factors. In this brief report, the results of Rushton and Irwing (2008) are re-examined and their conclusions are criticised. It is shown that it would be unwise to rely on the data from their meta-analysis and that there is no statistical reason to assume that there is a general factor of personality. It is also argued that evolutionary theory does not justify the search for a general factor of personality.     

The aggression test as a taxonomic tool: Evaluation in sympatric and allopatric populations of wood-ant species

Ant-workers of Formica lugubris and F. rufa from colonies living sympatrically (from the same area) and allopatrically (from different areas) were tested in pairs using a laboratory aggression test. The aim was to verify whether sharing the same area of origin influences the relationships among heteroeolonials between and within these species which belong to the F. rufa group. The results suggest that a similar degree of agonistic behaviour (ritualised aggression) was shown in sympatric and allopatric conspecific dyads of both species studied. The interactions between F. lugubris and F. rufa were characterised by a low level of overt aggression both in sympatric and allopatric pairs, confirming the interspecific tolerance observed in our previous studies on these wood-ant species. This reduced aggressiveness between workers of F. lugubris and F. rufa coming from the same or a different area can be interpreted on the basis of their sharing common signals, such as odours and patterns of behaviour. Therefore, their mutual tolerance and acceptance can be indicative of a phylogenetic closeness between such species. We propose that an aggression test can be a valid tool for elucidating systematic problems in this taxonomically difficult group of ants. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Personality and reciprocal inhibition theory: The link between aggression and sexual reactivity

The study tries to relate two approaches often discussed in the context of aggression and violence in combination with sexual arousal, the reciprocal inhibition theory (Wolpe, 1958) and an approach from personality psychology which emphasizes the psychoticism dimension (P) according to Eysenck and Eysenck (1975) as a mediator of violent sexual offence. The effects of preexposure to a violent vs. neutral movie on sexual reactivity to violent and non-violent sexual stimuli (audioplays and pictures) was studied in a male student population (N=64). Sexual reactivity was measured by self-ratings, inspection time and electrodermal activity. Results could not confirm reciprocal inhibition theory but revealed that sexual reactivity for subjects scoring high vs. low on the psychoticism/aggressiveness dimension were differently affected by preexposure to violence.     

A renewed look at Miller's conflict theory of aggression displacement.

The present study is the first to examine Miller's theoretical assumptions of displaced aggression using human subjects. Subjects in the present study either served as nonangered controls, were angered by the experimenter's confederate, or were both angered by and led to fear the confederate. All subjects were then able to three targets: the confederate, a person described as a friend of the confederate, and a person having no association with the confederate. Targets received the most intense aggression from angered subjects. The difference between the aggression gradients for high-anger-low-fear and control subject. Frightened subjects gave their most intense aggression to the displaced targets. Results also support the suggestion that direct aggression is most likely if the aggressor can first extinguish some of his fear by attacking more indirect targets.     

A longitudinal study of the association between violent video game play and aggression among adolescents

In the past 2 decades, correlational and experimental studies have found a positive association between violent video game play and aggression. There is less evidence, however, to support a long-term relation between these behaviors. This study examined sustained violent video game play and adolescent aggressive behavior across the high school years and directly assessed the socialization (violent video game play predicts aggression over time) versus selection hypotheses (aggression predicts violent video game play over time). Adolescents (N = 1,492, 50.8% female) were surveyed annually from Grade 9 to Grade 12 about their video game play and aggressive behaviors. Nonviolent video game play, frequency of overall video game play, and a comprehensive set of potential 3rd variables were included as covariates in each analysis. Sustained violent video game play was significantly related to steeper increases in adolescents' trajectory of aggressive behavior over time. Moreover, greater violent video game play predicted higher levels of aggression over time, after controlling for previous levels of aggression, supporting the socialization hypothesis. In contrast, no support was found for the selection hypothesis. Nonviolent video game play also did not predict higher levels of aggressive behavior over time. Our findings, and the fact that many adolescents play video games for several hours every day, underscore the need for a greater understanding of the long-term relation between violent video games and aggression, as well as the specific game characteristics (e.g., violent content, competition, pace of action) that may be responsible for this association.     

The effect of the amount of blood in a violent video game on aggression, hostility, and arousal

The current study utilized the General Aggression Model, with an emphasis on aggression-related priming, to explore the different effects on hostility, physiological arousal, and state aggression in those who played a violent video game (Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance) with differing levels of blood (maximum, medium, low, and off). Simple effects analyses showed that those in the maximum blood and medium blood conditions had a significant increase in hostility and physiological arousal, while those in the low blood and no blood conditions did not have such an increase in arousal and hostility. Further analyses indicated that those in the maximum and medium blood conditions used the character’s weapon significantly more often than those in the low and blood absent conditions. Implications and future research are discussed.     

Fraisse's theory of emotion and aggression.

This article shows how Fraisse's (1964) theory of emotion is a better explanation of aggression than any other theory of emotion. It discusses conceptual and methodological difficulties in existing theories of aggression and reports a study that supports a hypothesis based on Fraisse's theory. This study, which used Canadian university students equally divided by sex, supports the hypothesis that subjects would be more aggressive when faced with an unexpected annoyance than with an expected annoyance. Aggression was indexed by subjects' evaluation of the target person (confederate) as a source of annoyance.