The enduring scandal of deduction

Deductive inference is usually regarded as being “tautological” or “analytical”: the information conveyed by the conclusion is contained in the information conveyed by the premises. This idea, however, clashes with the undecidability of first-order logic and with the (likely) intractability of Boolean logic. In this article, we address the problem both from the semantic and the proof-theoretical point of view. We propose a hierarchy of propositional logics that are all tractable (i.e. decidable in polynomial time), although by means of growing computational resources, and converge towards classical propositional logic. The underlying claim is that this hierarchy can be used to represent increasing levels of “depth” or “informativeness” of Boolean reasoning. Special attention is paid to the most basic logic in this hierarchy, the pure “intelim logic”, which satisfies all the requirements of a natural deduction system (allowing both introduction and elimination rules for each logical operator) while admitting of a feasible (quadratic) decision procedure. We argue that this logic is “analytic” in a particularly strict sense, in that it rules out any use of “virtual information”, which is chiefly responsible for the combinatorial explosion of standard classical systems. As a result, analyticity and tractability are reconciled and growing degrees of computational complexity are associated with the depth at which the use of virtual information is allowed.     

The effect of availability heuristics in online consumer reviews

This research investigates principles of judgmental heuristics and dual processing systems in the online purchasing environment. It examines the effects of availability cues in restaurant reviews on dining intentions and menu item choice. Two experiments are reported in which consumers make dining out and food choice decisions using simulated online review sites. The first experiment evaluates primacy–recency effects of positive and negative reviews along with different review types. The findings indicate that text plus ratings produce higher visit intentions and expectations compared with either cue by itself. The second experiment examines the effects of rating format, visual cues, and review valence on menu item choice. Pictures increase likelihood to choose a positively reviewed menu item but do not influence likelihood to choose a negatively reviewed item. This finding supports the negativity bias, whereby consumers place more weight on negative versus positive information. Consumers are more likely to choose a menu item with pictures when ratings are in numerical versus star rating format. The findings can be interpreted in terms of System 1 (heuristic) and System 2 (systematic) processing.     

The Big Five and enduring marriages

The present investigation tested the relations between the Big Five dimensions of personality and the marital relationships of over 400 couples using both observational and questionnaire data. Four major findings emerged from these analyses. First, self-reports of neuroticism were positively correlated with negative interactions and negatively correlated with global evaluations of the marriage. Second, self-reports of agreeableness were negatively correlated with negative interactions and generally positively correlated with global evaluations of the marriage. Third, self-reports of openness were negatively correlated with observer reports of negative interactions. Fourth, self-reports of openness by wives were positively correlated with global reports of sexual satisfaction. These findings suggest that agreeableness and openness deserve increased attention as significant correlates of close relationships. Discussion emphasizes the importance of intrapersonal factors for understanding marital relationships.     

The enduring Rorschach contributions of David Rapaport

David Rapaport's contributions to the Rorschach are highlighted and placed within the context of his significant impact on psychological testing and psychoanalytic theory. After a brief biographical sketch, I examine the essence of Rapaport's lasting Rorschach contributions and summarize some of the strengths and limitations of the Rapaport Method.     

The enduring impact of violence against children

More than one billion children – half of all children in the world – are exposed to violence every year. The violence children are exposed to includes both direct experiences of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, as well as indirectly witnessing violence in their homes, schools, and communities. What these various forms of violence share, based on a review of the literature, is their enduring potential for life-long consequences. These consequences include increases in the risks of injury, HIV, sexually transmitted infections, mental health problems, reproductive health problems, and non-communicable diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic lung disease, and diabetes. Studies addressing biologic underpinnings of such consequences demonstrate that violence-associated toxic stress may cause damage to the nervous, endocrine, circulatory, musculo-skeletal, reproductive, respiratory, and immune systems. Furthermore, rigorous economic evaluations suggest that costs associated with the consequences of violence against children exceed $120 billion in the U.S. and account for up to 3.5% of the GDP in sub-regions of East Asia. The expanding literature confirming the mechanisms of consequences and the associated costs of violence against children has been accompanied by growing evidence on effective approaches to prevention. Moreover, the expanding evidence on prevention has been accompanied by a growing determination on the part of global leaders to accelerate action. Thus, as part of the Post-2015 Sustainable Development agenda, the UN has issued a call-to-action: to eliminate violence against children. This unprecedented UN call may foster new investments, to fuel new progress for protecting children around the world from violence and its preventable consequences.     

The effect of signaled reinforcement availability on concurrent performances in humans

During Phase I, three female human subjects pressed a button for monetary reinforcement in two-component concurrent variable-interval schedules. Five different reinforcement frequencies were used in component A, whereas the reinforcement frequency in component B was held constant. Absolute rates of responding conformed to equations proposed by Herrnstein to describe concurent performances, and the ratios of the response rates and the times spent in the two components conformed to the matching law. During Phase II, the availability of reinforcement in component A was signaled by the illumination of a lamp. This resulted in suppression of response rates in component A and elevation of response rates in component B, these changes being reflected in a distortion of the matching relationship which took the form of a bias in favor of component B.     

Dewey's enduring vitality

Conclusion There are many loose ends in this study and I shall make no effort to tie them together in some neat summary. I trust that my basic sympathies with Dewey have been clear throughout. What I have discovered in the course of writing this is that reflecting upon Dewey's work in the light of contemporary problems and schools of philosophy not only casts light on these problems and schools but enhances one's appreciation for the distinctiveness, coherence and value of his work.     

The enduring impact of transient emotions on decision making

People often do not realize they are being influenced by an incidental emotional state. As a result, decisions based on a fleeting incidental emotion can become the basis for future decisions and hence outlive the original cause for the behavior (i.e., the emotion itself). Using a sequence of ultimatum and dictator games, we provide empirical evidence for the enduring impact of transient emotions on economic decision making. Behavioral consistency and false consensus are presented as potential underlying processes.     

The effect of stimulus availability on task choice in voluntary task switching

The voluntary task switching paradigm allows subjects to choose which task to perform on each trial in a stimulus environment affording multiple tasks. The present study examined the effect of stimulus availability on task choice. Subjects viewed displays containing a digit and a letter and performed either an even/odd or a consonant/vowel judgment on each trial. The target stimuli appeared with a stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) of 0, 50, 100, or 150 msec. The probability of performing the task associated with Stimulus 1 increased as SOA increased, indicating an effect of external or stimulus-driven factors on task choice. This effect of stimulus availability on task choice was greater when the response-stimulus interval was 400 msec than when it was 2,000 msec. This interaction of preparation interval and stimulus availability is explained within a model of task choice that includes both internal processes and external influences.     

The concreteness effect: evidence for dual coding and context availability

The term concreteness effect refers to the observation that concrete nouns are processed faster and more accurately than abstract nouns in a variety of cognitive tasks. Two models have been proposed to explain the neuronal basis of the concreteness effect. The dual-coding theory attributes the advantage to the access of a right hemisphere image based system in addition to a verbal system by concrete words. The context availability theory argues that concrete words activate a broader contextual verbal support, which results in faster processing, but do not access a distinct image based system. We used event-related fMRI to detect the brain regions that subserve to the concreteness effect. We found greater activation in the lower right and left parietal lobes, in the left inferior frontal lobe and in the precuneus during encoding of concrete compared to abstract nouns. This makes a single exclusive theory unlikely and rather suggests a combination of both models. Superior encoding of concrete words in the present study may result from (1) greater verbal context resources reflected by the activation of left parietal and frontal associative areas, and (2) the additional activation of a non-verbal, perhaps spatial imagery-based system, in the right parietal lobe.     

The enduring presence of Heinz Kohut: empathy and its vicissitudes

This paper expands upon and further develops the centrality of empathy in psychoanalysis as offered by Heinz Kohut. Using clinical examples, it differentiates sustained empathy as the distinctive component of psychoanalysis, and it demonstrates some of the difficulties in determining the boundaries of empathy in the practice of psychoanalysis. A further distinction is from mind reading, a purely cognitive exercise, as is intuition (Carruthers 2009). To pursue a psychoanalytic perception of empathy one must confront its limitations and go beyond the somewhat simplistic claim of its unquestioned therapeutic effect. Empathy is more than a cognitive act, and as sustained over time it can be difficult to achieve, can be misunderstood, and can at times have no therapeutic effect.     

The effect of practice on component submovements is dependent on the availability of visual feedback

Participants (N = 16) were given extensive practice (1,500 trials) on a perceptual-motor aiming task. The full-vision (FV) group practiced with vision of their response cursor, whereas the no-vision (NV) group practiced in a condition without vision. Movements were made as quickly and accurately as possible, and knowledge of results (KR) was provided. The authors tested the importance of vision early and late in practice by transferring participants to the NV condition without KR. The effects of practice differed between the two conditions. The FV group increased the speed of initial impulse to get to the target quickly, then relied on vision to make discrete error corrections. Transfer tests revealed that reliance on vision remained after extensive practice. For the NV group, practice effects were associated with a reduction in the extent to which discrete error corrections were produced.     

The enduring significance of Christos Yannaras: some further works in translation

The Greek philosopher and theologian Christos Yannaras is becoming better known in the English-speaking world with the publication of an increasing number of his works in English translation. With the help of Wittgenstein and Heidegger, Yannaras articulates an ontological (as opposed to an ontic) version of Being based on relation. Beings exist not as ontic entities but only with reference to the person. Relation actually constitutes existents. Our fulfilment as human beings lies in our ascending from the mode of nature, which is bound by necessity, to a mode of existence characterised by self-transcending referentiality or love. Two obstacles are considered: the problem of evil and the ‘religionisation’ of Christianity. The fundamental problem of evil is that it renders human life without meaning. There are, however, no rational explanations of evil. The only reply lies beyond language, in faith/trust, self-transcendence and self-offering. A religionised version of Christianity transforms faith into an ideology which holds out salvation as a reward for the individual. The Church – the ecclesial event – is not a collection of individuals seeking their own salvation but a community of people called to struggle together to attain true existence, to pass from the finite mode of nature to that mode which knows no limitations of decay and death. An intellectualist approach to philosophy does not help us to achieve this goal. For philosophy is not simply an exercise in thinking but the struggle to attain existential freedom. Such freedom is transformatory, referential and ek-static.