同伴特点如何影响人们的合作与冲突行为?

人类的生存繁衍依赖于人们之间的相互合作,合作与冲突行为的研究近年来成为心理学的研究热点。本研究通过实验程序操纵Chicken Game中博弈同伴的特点,考察个体在社会困境中面对不同特点同伴时的合作行为。结果发现：(1)同伴道义论组和功利论组总和解率没有显著差异,同伴竞争组和合作组的总和解率也没有显著差异。(2)在与道义论以及合作型的同伴互动时,个体的行为没有明显受到上次博弈反馈的影响。(3)当同伴为功利论时,相比于上次博弈个体选择和解而同伴选择进攻,双方都选择和解时个体在当前博弈中更倾向于和解;(4)在同伴竞争组中,相比于上次博弈个体选择进攻而同伴选择和解,双方都选择和解时被试在当前博弈中会更倾向于和解。实验结果表明个体在博弈任务中会受到同伴特点的影响,并且同伴在博弈中的行为特点的影响更为显著。本研究从同伴特点来考察个体的合作行为,揭示了影响个体博弈行为的一种因素。     

Physical aggression as a function of perceived fighting ability among male and female prisoners

Study 1 used two scenarios depicting provocations to investigate whether prisoners' willingness to engage in physical aggression would vary according to the perceived fighting ability (Resource Holding Power [RHP]) of the opponent. RHP was operationalized in terms of three levels of the size, number of allies, and reputation. The sample (both sexes; N=1,253) was taken from a range of British prisons. Unexpectedly, the prisoners said that they would be less likely to attack a weaker opponent than an equally matched one. The predicted decline from equally matched to more formidable opponents was found only under some conditions. A further sample of male prisoners (N=260), completed a similar provocation scenario, with response options covering fear, several forms of aggression, the importance of the provocation for reputation, and that the provocation was unimportant. Fear increased with RHP as predicted. Lower physical aggression to a low RHP opponent was again found, and it was associated with a lesser impact on reputation of an insult from this source. There was also a lower likelihood of responding with physical aggression to a high RHP opponent, as originally predicted. Implications of the findings for motivational theories of aggression are discussed, and also the applicability to humans of concepts from game theory models of the evolution of fighting strategies.     

Aggression and social status: the moderating roles of sex and peer‐valued characteristics

Research on peer rejection has long emphasized links between aggressive behavior and peer liking, with aggressive children and adolescents being more rejected by peers. However, recent research shows that at least some aggressive students enjoy considerable power and influence and are perceived as “popular” within the peer group. To understand the processes underlying links between aggression and social status, the present research considered three distinct indices of social status (social preference, perceived popularity, and power) and investigated the degree to which the possession of peer‐valued characteristics moderated the links between status and aggression and whether these links varied by sex. A sample of 585 adolescents (grades 6–10) completed peer evaluation measures assessing social status, aggression (overt/physical, indirect/relational), and the degree to which peers possessed eight different peer‐valued characteristics (e.g., attractiveness, athleticism, etc.). Although sociometric indices of status were significantly related to perceived popularity, especially for boys, perceptions of power were more strongly linked to perceived popularity than to sociometric likeability. Moreover, the three indices of social status were differentially related to peers' assessments of aggression and to peer‐valued characteristics, with notable sex differences. As predicted, regression analyses demonstrated that the observed relationships between social status and aggression were moderated by the possession of peer‐valued characteristics; aggressive students who possessed peer‐valued characteristics enjoyed higher levels of perceived popularity and power and less disliking than those who did not. This relationship varied as a function of sex, the type of aggression considered, and the status construct predicted. Aggr. Behav. 32:396–408, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Physical aggression: Effects of ethnicity of target and directionality of aggression

Physical aggression of members of a powerful majority ethnic group against an opponent either from a powerless and discriminated against minority or from their own group was tested as a function of aggression directionality and aggressor's attitudes. It was hypothesized that under bidirectional aggression where the opponent could aggress as well, members of the powerful majority group would adjust their aggressive responses to that of their opponent's regardless of his ethnic origin and regardless of aggressor's attitudes. However. under unidirectional aggression where the opponent was powerless, it was expected that those subjects who held unfavourable attitudes toward members of the minority group would be more aggressive against an opponent of that group than against an opponent of his own ethnic group. Subjects who had neutral attitudes would be equally aggressive toward all opponents. Ninety-six 11th grade vocational high school male students of Western origin, were given the opportunity to administer electric shocks to an opponent who was either of Western or Oriental origin in a competitive situation, Subjects were selected according to their attitudes toward Oriental Jews. Half expressed negative attitudes, the other half neutral attitudes. Half of the subjects expected their opponent to reciprocate shocks, the others did not. Contrary to expectations it was found that the attitudes of subjects of Western origin towards Orientals did not effect their aggressive behaviour. When aggression could not be reciprocated, all subjects were more aggressive toward an opponent of Oriental than of Western origin. The findings showed that when aggression was bidirectional, all subjects adjusted their aggressive behaviour, to their opponents'. However, they were less aggressive towards an opponent of Oriental than of Western origin.     

Gender differences in aggression: The role of displaying facial emotional cues in a competitive situation

Prior studies have shown that facial emotion displays communicate emotional states and interpersonal intentions. This study addressed gender differences in aggression based on the facial emotional cues expressed from a fictional opponent. A modified version of the competitive reaction time task (CRTT) was used to measure aggression. Participants (N = 251), between 18 and 35 years of age, were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions of the fictional opponents’ facial emotional cue displayed during the CRTT: anger, sadness, neutral, or the absence of facial expression. After each trial, participants were asked to report their own feelings and to choose a level of noise to administer to their opponent. Finally, motives for aggression were assessed. Results showed that women were less aggressive than men when receiving emotional cues of sadness and anger from the sender. In contrast, no gender differences occurred when a neutral expression was displayed or in the absence of any expression. In addition, men displayed similar levels of aggression across the four conditions, whereas women were more aggressive in both neutral and no feedback conditions than in the sad and anger conditions. Instrumental motives contributed to explaining the overall gender differences in aggression. These results suggest important moderator and mediator factors of gender differences in aggressive behavior.     

Aggression and offence motivation in prisoners: exploring the components of motivation in an adult male sample

This study examined aggression and offending motivation. Participants were 206 adult male prisoners. All completed the Aggression Motivation Questionnaire [Ireland, 2008], the Offending Motivation Questionnaire [Gudjonsson and Sigurdsson, 2004], the Multidimensional Anger Inventory [Siegel, 1986] and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding [Paulhus, 1991]. It was predicted that aggression motivation would separate into two factors, one reflecting proactive aggression and the other reactive aggression. It was predicted that aggression motives would vary by offence type. It was also predicted that the offending motives identified in previous research (i.e. Excitement, Compliance, Provocation and Financial) would be reflected in this study. Levels of anger and social desirability were also examined for their relationship with aggression and offending motives. Results indicated that aggression motivation separated into four core motives; protection, social recognition, perceived positive outcome, and pleasure. Violent and nonviolent offenders were found to differ in their underlying motives for recent acts of aggression. Anger was related to all core aggression motives, whereas social desirability was related only to some. Offending motives were similar to previous research although some differences were found. Results are discussed with reference to their theoretical and clinical implications.     

Unsanctioned aggression in rugby union: relationships among aggressiveness,anger, athletic identity,and professionalization

Aggressive players who intentionally cause injury to their opponents are common in many sports, particularly collision sports such as Rugby Union. Although some acts of aggression fall within the rules (sanctioned), others do not (unsanctioned), with the latter tending to be less acceptable than the former. This study attempts to identify characteristics of players who are more likely to employ unsanctioned methods in order to injure an opponent. Male Rugby Union players completed questionnaires assessing aggressiveness, anger, past aggression, professionalization, and athletic identity. Players were assigned to one of two groups based on self‐reported past unsanctioned aggression. Results indicated that demographic variables (e.g., age, playing position, or level of play) were not predictive of group membership. Measures of aggressiveness and professionalization were significant predictors; high scores on both indicated a greater probability of reporting the use of unsanctioned aggressive force for the sole purpose of causing injury or pain. In addition, players who had been taught how to execute aggressive illegal plays without detection were also more likely to report using excessive force to injure an opponent. Results provide further support that highly professionalized players may be more likely to use methods outside the constitutive rules of Rugby Union in order to intentionally injure their opponents. Results are discussed within the context of the increasing win‐at‐all‐cost attitude that is becoming more prevalent in sport and its implications for youth athletes. Aggr. Behav. 35:237–243, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Effect of anosmia on the behavior of standard non-aggressive male mice opponents during agonistic encounters

This study assessed whether the differences observed in a previous experiment [Martinez M, Salvador A, Simon VM (1994): Aggressive Behavior 20:441–451] in the behavior of isolated male mice over several agonistic encounters in which they confronted either an “anosmic” or an “intact” non-aggressive “standard opponent” were due to the differences in the behavior of the opponents themselves. Ethologically-inspired analysis was used to assess the behavior of the opponents during the first agonistic encounter. Anosmic opponents spent less time in social investigation and defense and more time in immobility than intact ones. These results suggest that the differences in the behavior of the opponents could be one of the causes of the differences observed in the behavior of the aggressive males confronting them. However, more research is needed to study if other variables, such as the production of odors, are also affected by the state (deprived or intact) of the olfactory sense. These findings provide additional support for the view that the type of opponent used in studies on intermale aggression is of paramount importance.Aggr. Behav. 23:179–181, 1997.© 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

拿破仑情结的进化：相对身高劣势和求偶动机对男性冒险行为的影响

研究以性选择理论为基础, 探讨了与同性竞争者的相对身高劣势和求偶动机对男性冒险行为的影响。4个研究一致显示, 与同性竞争者存在的身高劣势会导致男性提高自身冒险性; 且高求偶动机水平的男性, 会更多地表现出这种补偿性行为。这些结果提示, 拿破仑情结具有进化的基础, 男性在自身身高与竞争者相比处于劣势时, 采用冒险行为进行补偿是男性用以解决性内竞争和性间竞争问题的一种适应器。     

Internet‐based CBT intervention for gamblers in Finland: Experiences from the field

From September 2007 to May 2011 a total of 471 participants (325 males and 146 females) signed up for an 8‐week Internet‐based cognitive behavioral therapy offered for gamblers in Finland. Sixty‐four percent of the participants were pathological gamblers (PGs) (NODS 5> points), 14% were problem gamblers (NODS 3–4 points) and 10% were at risk of gambling problems (NODS 1–2 points). Two hundred and twenty four participants completed the treatment and after the treatment period significant changes were found in the following variables: gambling related problems (NODS), gambling urge, impaired control of gambling, alcohol consumption (AUDIT‐C), social consequences, gambling‐related cognitive erroneous thoughts and depression (MARD‐S). In this sample co‐morbid alcohol consumption was stronger among males. The main finding of this study was that the onset age of gambling was associated with a greater amount of gambling‐related cognitive erroneous thoughts.     

Aggressive behaviour in adult slot machine gamblers: an interpretative phenomenological analysis

A growing number of studies have reported a link between gambling and aggressive behaviour. The aim of this study was to contextualize objective findings of a previous observational study regarding slot machine gambling and aggressive behaviour (Parke & Griffiths, Psychological Reports, 95, 109–114, 2004). Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was applied using the Idiographic Case Study method. The data revealed three superordinate themes regarding slot machine gambling‐induced aggression (i.e. Competitive Advantage Reduction, Self‐esteem Reduction, and Cognitive Regret). Within these superordinate themes, subordinate themes emerged identifying how environmental factors and structural characteristics of slot machine gambling, along with the consequences of losing, produced aggressive behaviour. It is concluded that gambling‐induced aggression is a manifestation of the underlying conflict of engaging in dysfunctional behaviour while consciously acknowledging its detrimental effects. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Facial attractiveness and vocal likeability as determinants of nonverbal sending skills1

Recent studies have examined the self-fulfilling effects of the physical attractiveness stereotype on a person's development of social skills. The potential of vocal qualities to have similar effects has not been investigated. The present study examined the relation of attractiveness (as judged from the face) and likeability of the person (as judged from the voice) to a specific social skill—the ability to send nonverbal cues of emotion. It was found that facial attractiveness and vocal likeability increased sending accuracy of facial and vocal cues respectively, particularly for pleasant affects. The greater accuracy of facially attractive senders tended to be especially emphasized for posed (as compared to spontaneous) expressions, indicating that their superiority reflected a controllable skill. The need for further research in the tradition of “what is (vocally) likeable is good” was noted.     

Ares and Babbitt in the classroom: effects of competition and reward on children's aggression.

In many competitive situations, aggression is one of several instrumental behaviors that can produce reinforcing consequences. Despite the fact that aggression precipitated by competition for valued resources is an increasingly important social problem, there is little evidence of a causal relationship. In a factorial experiment, dyads of 64 kindergarten and first-grade males played a game in a face-to-face setting that yielded a prize for the winner only. It was predicted that high levels of competition and high levels of reward magnitude would produce more aggressive behavior than lower levels of these variables. Additionally, children rated by their teachers as high in dispositional aggressiveness were anticipated to behave most aggressively in the game. Each of these predictions was confirmed on three different measures of aggression: verbal, interference, and physical. Furthermore, the data suggested that constructive action was sometimes abandoned in attempts to harm an opponent. Since competition for desirable objects is a social reality, it was concluded that conditions inhibiting aggression in these situations should be investigated.     

The impact of individualistic and collectivistic orientation on the judgment of self‐presentation

The aims of this paper are two‐fold: (i) to examine the impact of audience individualism and collectivism orientation on the judgment of strategic self‐presentations and (ii) to test whether audience individualism and collectivism orientation would affect the importance of likeability and competence in determining social outcomes. In two studies, participants evaluated modest and boastful presentations in an achievement context. It was found that the more collectivistic the audience was, the more likely the modest presenter was to be rated as likable, competent, and deserving of a desirable social outcome. In contrast, the more individualistic the audience was, the more likely the boastful presenter was to be rated as likeable, competent, and deserving of a desirable social outcome. The importance of likeability and competence in predicting the final social outcome was moderated by audience individualism and collectivism orientation. Likeability was more important in deciding the social outcome for those who were more collectivistic than for those who were less so (Study 1). Competence was more important in determining the social outcome for those who were more individualistic (Study 2). These studies build a potential theoretical bridge between social influence and social perception/social judgment literature. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of non‐aggressive behaviour early in aggressive interactions: Sex differences in direct and indirect aggression in response to provocation

Using an adapted form of the Taylor competitive reaction time task (TCRT: Taylor, 1967), we examined the effect of initially non‐aggressive behaviour during aggressive encounters. Specifically, if a person is initially non‐aggressive, but becomes more aggressive later, does an opponent respond more or less aggressively in response? Participants (N = 148) played a competitive reaction time task against a bogus partner, who was either initially non‐aggressive, or initially moderately aggressive, and then delivered increasingly loud noise blasts to participants on trials when the participant lost. Both direct (noise blasts delivered to the partner) and indirect aggression (damage to partner's reputation) were assessed. The impact of whether or not participants expected to meet the partner on direct and indirect aggression was also examined. All participants reduced their direct aggression towards an initially non‐aggressive partner and a partner they expected to meet. However, for females, the switch from initial non‐aggression to later aggression generated a negative evaluation of the partner, exhibited by indirect but not direct aggression.     

The importance of who you meet: Effects of self- versus other-concerns among negotiators in the United States, the People’s Republic of China, and Japan

This study examines intracultural negotiation within three different cultures—the United States (US), the People’s Republic of China (PRC), and Japan. Within these cultures, we focus on the interactive effects of the self-concerns (operationalized as aspiration level) and other-concerns (operationalized as egoistic vs. prosocial motives) of negotiators in a dyadic setting (De Dreu, Weingart, & Kwon, 2000; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986). After allowing negotiators to set their own aspiration levels, we predicted that the positive effect on final individual profit of having a higher aspiration than one’s opponent would be stronger among negotiators with an egoistic social motive orientation. We also hypothesized that egoistic negotiators with higher aspiration levels than their opponents would achieve greater profit in the PRC and Japan, relative to their counterparts in the US. We argue that this effect is due to “who you meet” as a negotiation opponent—there is a higher probability of encountering an egoistic negotiation opponent in the US, but a higher probability of encountering a prosocial negotiation opponent in the PRC and Japan. Our results supported these hypotheses. Implications for the literatures on negotiation and cross-cultural research are discussed.     

Effects of racial prejudice and race of target on aggression

Three studies were conducted to investigate the relationship between prejudice and physical aggression using the competitive reaction time paradigm. In Study 1, high and low prejudiced subjects competed against either a black or white opponent. The race of the opponent did not differentially affect the aggressive behavior of either high or low prejudiced subjects. In Study 2, high prejudiced subjects were confronted with a competitor who behaved in a nonaggressive fashion. Under these conditions, the high prejudiced subjects attacked the black target more than the white target. In Study 3, high prejudiced subjects competed against an opponent who communicated nonaggressive intentions. The subjects behaved in a nonaggressive manner toward both the black and the white target. It was proposed that prejudice facilitates indiscriminate aggression in the presence of a clear threat and selective aggression in the presence of ambiguous threat.     

Effects of provocation on emotions and aggression in males

The effects of provocation of emotions and human physical aggression were examined using a competitive reaction time paradigm. Fifty-four males participated in the competitive task with a fictitious opponent. Participants were assigned to two conditions, low-constant provocation and increasing provocation. Aggression was defined as the intensity of electric shocks participants selected for the opponent to receive. Negative emotions (threat, harm) and positive emotions (benefit, challenge) were assessed at four times during the experimental task. The results revealed that both aggressive responding and harm emotions differed as a function of opponent's level of provocation. There was little compelling evidence that emotions served as an important intervening variable in the relationship between provocation and aggression. Aggr. Behav. 23:1–10, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The relation between scores on the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire and aggressive acts,impulsiveness, competitiveness,dominance, and sexual jealousy

This paper examines the relation of the four subscales (physical, verbal, anger and hostility) of the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) to act‐based aggression questionnaires (involving same‐sex or partners as opponents, and direct or indirect aggression) and evolutionarily based predictors of aggression, using an online student sample. All aggression measures were moderately correlated with one another. The BPAQ physical and verbal scales were most closely related to act‐based measures of direct aggression to a same‐sex other and the hostility scale to indirect aggression to a same‐sex other. The evolutionary variables were less closely related to the BPAQ than were the act‐based measures. Dominance and sexual jealousy were predictors of BPAQ physical, verbal and anger, and impulsiveness was a significant predictor of anger. Aggr. Behav. 32:1–10, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Why I Hit Him: Women's Reasons for Intimate Partner Violence

This study examines motives for intimate partner violence (IPV) among a community sample of 412 women who used IPV against male partners. A "Motives and Reasons for IPV scale" is proposed, and exploratory factor analyses identified five factors: expression of negative emotions, self-defense, control, jealousy, and tough guise. To our knowledge, the study is the first to investigate the relationship between women's motives for IPV and their perpetration of physical, psychological, and sexual aggression, as well as coercive control, toward partners. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed participants' aggression was driven by complex, multiple motives. All five motives were related to a greater frequency of perpetrating IPV. Treatment programs focusing on women's IPV perpetration should address both defensive and proactive motives.