Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise

Executive function refers to the cognitive processes necessary for goal-directed cognition and behavior, which develop across childhood and adolescence. Recent experimental research indicates that both acute and chronic aerobic exercise promote children’s executive function. Furthermore, there is tentative evidence that not all forms of aerobic exercise benefit executive function equally: Cognitively-engaging exercise appears to have a stronger effect than non-engaging exercise on children’s executive function. This review discusses this evidence as well as the mechanisms that may underlie the association between exercise and executive function. Research from a variety of disciplines is covered, including developmental psychology, kinesiology, cognitive neuroscience, and biopsychology. Finally, these experimental findings are placed within the larger context of known links between action and cognition in infancy and early childhood, and the clinical and practical implications of this research are discussed.     

Views on aging and emotional benefits of physical activity: Effects of an exercise intervention in older women

Objectives

This intervention study evaluated the effects of exercise in old age on views on one’s own aging and on direct approach motivation for physical activity. It further examined the mechanism between these variables.

Design

Two hundred forty-seven healthy women aged 70−93 years were randomized to an exercise course (n = 86), an active (n = 85), or a passive control group (n = 76) for a 6-month participation in Berlin, Germany. Activity interventions (3 × 1.5 h/wk) were conducted using standardized manuals.

Method

Group differences in changes of views on aging and direct approach were evaluated by analyses of covariance adjusted for baseline. A mediating effect of direct approach between exercise participation and views on aging was tested with percentile-based bootstrapping.

Results

In contrast to both the active and the passive control groups, higher direct approach, F(2, 226) = 6.97, p = .001, and less aging dissatisfaction, F(2, 225) = 5.39, p = .005, were observed in the exercise group after 6 months. Exercise had an indirect beneficial effect on aging dissatisfaction through direct approach, B = −0.31, 95% CI = −0.68 to −0.05.

Conclusion

In women above 70 years, exercise participation increases direct approach motivation which in turn leads to lower aging dissatisfaction. This shows that exercise holds the potential to overcome subjective ageist bias.     

Mood enhancement persists for up to 12 hours following aerobic exercise: a pilot study

The objective was to estimate the duration of the effects of aerobic exercise on mood. Healthy men (n = 13) and women (n = 35) ages 18 to 25 years (M = 20.2, SD = 3.4) were randomly assigned to either a control or exercise group. Participants completed the Profile of Mood States before, after, and at 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 hours following either exercise at 60% VO2 peak or quiet rest. Repeated-measures analysis of covariance was utilized with VO2 peak entered as a covariate. The exercise group showed significantly lower total mood disturbance immediately after and at 4, 8, and 12 hours following exercise.     

Adherence to exercise and physical activity as health-promoting behaviors: Attitudinal and self-efficacy influences

In this review, we consider the extant literature dealing with the influential roles of self-efficacy and attitudes in adherence to exercise. In so doing, we provide a brief overview of the tenets of each theory followed by the primary review of each model as it has been applied to exercise behavior in both diseased and asymptomatic population. Next, we offer some recommendations for the practical application of these theoretical models in facilitating physical activity participation. Finally, we conclude with a summary of our approach.     

Understanding physical activity declines during COVID-19: The affective repercussions of disruption to exercise routines

Recent research has examined psychological factors that forestalled declines in physical activity (PA) during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Surprisingly, there has been limited evidence of an association between intrinsic motivation (IM) and PA. We reasoned that IM may have not predicted PA because COVID-19 restrictions limited opportunities to engage in exercise in ways that produced positive affective experiences (i.e., inherent rewards). Using data from a cross-sectional survey (N = 373 participants), we tested a moderated mediation model that predicted perceived changes to affective experiences during exercise would mediate the association between disruption to one’s exercise routine and self-reported declines in PA, and that effects would be moderated by IM. Evidence of moderated mediation was found, suggesting that disruptions to exercise routines were associated with fewer positive affective experiences during exercise that predicted declines in PA engagement, especially for people who typically exercised for intrinsic reasons.     

Relationships between self-determination theory and theory of planned behavior applied to physical activity and exercise behavior in chronic pain

This study examined the relationships between self-determination theory (SDT) and theory of planned behavior (TpB) applied to physical activity and exercise behavior (PA&E) in people with chronic pain. Two hundred and eleven adults with chronic musculoskeletal pain (28 males and 183 females, age range 18 to 82 years, mean age 43 years) were recruited from online support groups and clinic networks in the United States. Participants completed SDT measures relevant to PA&E on perceived autonomy support, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as well as TpB measures relevant to PA&E on intention, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Correlational techniques and canonical correlation analysis were performed to examine the relationships and variance within and between theoretical dimensions. Overall, the SDT set accounted for 37% of the TpB variance and the TpB set accounted for 32% of the SDT set variance. The results indicate there are statistical similarities and differences between concepts in SDT and TpB models for PA&E. Using both empirical guidance and clinical expertise, researchers and practitioners should attempt to select and integrate non-redundant and complementary components from SDT, TpB, and other related health behavior theories.     

Saving mental effort to maintain physical effort: a shift of activity within the prefrontal cortex in anticipation of prolonged exercise

Executive functioning and attention require mental effort. In line with the resource conservation principle, we hypothesized that mental effort would be saved when individuals expected to exercise for a long period. Twenty-two study participants exercised twice on a cycle ergometer for 10 min at 60% of their maximal aerobic power, with the expectation of exercising for either 10 min or 60 min. Changes in activity in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rdlPFC) and right medial frontal cortex (rmPFC) were investigated by measuring oxyhemoglobin using near-infrared spectroscopy. Attentional focus and ratings of perceived exertion were assessed at three time points (200, 400, and 600 s). The oxyhemoglobin concentration was lower in the rdlPFC and higher in the rmPFC under the 60-min than under the 10-min condition. Also, attention was less focused in the 60-min than in the 10-min condition. We discuss these results as possible evidence of a disengagement of the brain regions associated with mental effort (executive network), in favor of brain regions linked to resting activity (the default network), in order to save mental resources for the maintenance of exercise.     

Integrating meaning in life and self-determination theory to predict physical activity adoption in previously inactive exercise initiates enrolled in a randomized trial

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) suggests that individuals with greater basic psychological needs satisfaction and autonomous motivation are more likely to adopt physical activity (PA). However, few longitudinal studies have examined these processes in exercise initiates outside the context of a formalized intervention. Further, an implicit yet relatively unexplored tenet of SDT is that when behaviors are closely connected to what is meaningful to individuals, those behaviors are more likely to be maintained. This study had two aims: (a) to examine SDT and a sense of meaning in life (MIL) in relation to PA in previously inactive exercise initiates, and (b) to determine whether daily measurement of MIL, mood, and PA impacts PA engagement. Upon joining a fitness center, participants (N = 160; M age = 43.3 years; 77% female) were recruited for a longitudinal study of PA adoption. Participants were randomized to a daily measurement condition (self-monitoring) where they reported daily MIL, mood, and PA or to an attention control condition. All participants self-reported their PA, basic psychological needs satisfaction, behavioral exercise regulation, and MIL at baseline, 4-weeks, and 12-weeks after starting an exercise program. Longitudinal path models were used to examine the relationships among study variables. Cross-sectionally, SDT constructs were largely related to PA in the expected directions. After accounting for SDT processes, baseline MIL was associated with greater PA at 4-weeks (p = .028). There were no differences in PA, SDT constructs, or MIL between the measurement self-monitoring and control groups. MIL predicted PA adoption above and beyond SDT predictors in previously inactive adults. Combined SDT and MIL intervention approaches may enhance PA adoption, and further research should explore their roles in PA adoption and maintenance.     

When 'fit' leads to fit, and when 'fit' leads to fat: how message framing and intrinsic vs. extrinsic exercise outcomes interact in promoting physical activity

A unique aspect of exercise is that people may choose to engage in it to achieve a variety of outcomes, ranging from extrinsic (appearance, health) to intrinsic (satisfaction, enjoyment). We examined how the impact of gain- vs. loss-framed messages depends on the type of outcome emphasised. Drawing from regulatory focus theory (Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300; Higgins, E.T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55, 1217-1230), we predicted that gain-framed messages would 'fit' with intrinsic outcomes and loss-framed messages would 'fit' with extrinsic outcomes, but the effect of such fit on physical activity would depend on the participants' need for cognition (NC). We tested these hypotheses with a sample of 176 sedentary young adults who read an exercise message with randomly assigned frame (gain/loss) and outcome (intrinsic/extrinsic). Participants provided daily reports of exercise over the following week. The predicted interaction between frame, outcome and NC was found (p=0.001) such that a 'fit' message promoted somewhat, but not significantly, greater exercise for those with high NC, but a 'non-fit' message promoted significantly greater exercise for those with low NC. Furthermore, differences in physical activity were partially mediated by attitudes towards exercise. Findings shed light on how the outcomes and motivations associated with physical activity shape people's behavioural responses to framed health communications.     

Cognitive exercise through body movement: Using a fun and short neuropsychological tool to adapt physical activity and enhance pleasure in individuals suffering from mental illnesses

Mental illness is associated to both metabolic and cognitive deficits. The idea here is to use adapted physical activity (APA) to help both aspects of pathology within a personal-targeted cognitive intervention program in order to enhance self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Using a multi-experience neuropsychological tool set (comprising touch pad exercises, wood puzzles and one-on-one semi-structured interviews), the different domains of action, timing, executive functions and social cognition were evaluated in a short 30-minute session. These computerized neuropsychological data were then used to adapt the difficulty of the proposed physical activity. Results obtained in a small group of ten patients revealed that the battery was well accepted. Both quantitative and qualitative results were collected and suggested that after 4 sessions of 2 h activity, the scores were improved for motor planning, motivation and the subjective report of quality of life. These preliminary data are important as they show that new technology can now be used to adapt automatically physical activities to the motor, cognitive and emotional capacities of the targeted individuals. Touch pads may also afford an innovating way to evaluate efficiently cognitive abilities while preserving the pleasure of the moment.