The relation of an environmental variable to performance in a prolonged visual task

In a previous paper (Fraser, 1950) on the relation between angle of display and performance in a prolonged visual task (Mackworth's Clock Test), it was suggested that the presence or absence of the experimenter might affect performance on vigilance tasks. In Mackworth's original experiments (Mackworth, 1950) the subject was in a closed cabinet by himself, and as far as possible all external noise and stimuli were excluded. In the angle of display experiment, the writer sat in the same room as the subject, out of his sight, and there was no particular attempt to exclude the ordinary external noises, etc. It seemed worth while to follow up the previous experiment with another to test the hypothesis that the presence or absence of the experimenter might influence performance in such a task. A new apparatus was devised for this purpose, which possesses some advantages over the Clock Test.     

A computer system for processing eye-movement records

A computer system using the LINC-8 computer was developed to process eye-movement records from two 16-mm cine film input sources : the Mackworth stand camera and the Mackworth wide-angle camera. Data reduction was accomplished by projecting the films onto an X-Y plotting table. An operator marked, using a cursor, either the eyespot, in the case of the stand camera, or the pupil and display center, in the case of the wide-angle camera, in order to digitize the locus of the gaze. This information was normalized and stored on magnetic tape as: ordinal fixation number, fixation duration, and fixation coordinates (X and Y). A software library was created to analyze the three eye-movement measures. One program calculates interfixation distance, fixation time, and dispersion of fixations about a point. A second program operates on data matrices to: calculate area covered by a fixation pattern, frequency of redundant fixations in a fixation pattern, and distribution of fixations over features of the visual display. Data are displayed on either scope or the Calcomp plotter.     

Eye movements as a function of response contingencies measured by blackout technique

A program may have a low error rate but, at the same time, require little of the student and teach him little. A measure to supplement error rate in evaluating a program has recently been developed. This measure, called the blackout ratio, is the percentage of material that may be deleted without increasing the error rate. In high blackout-ratio programs, obtaining a correct answer is contingent upon only a small portion of the item. The present study determined if such low response-contingent material is read less thoroughly than programmed material that is heavily response-contingent. Eye movements were compared for two versions of the same program that differed only in the choice of the omitted words. The alteration of the required responses resulted in a version with a higher blackout ratio than the original version, which had a low blackout ratio. Eighteen undergraduates received half their material from the high and half their material from the low blackout-ratio version. The order was counterbalanced. Location and duration of all eye fixations in each item were recorded by a Mackworth Eye Marker Camera. On high blackout-ratio material, subjects used fewer fixations, shorter fixation time, and shorter scanning time. High blackout-ratio material failed to evoke the students' attention.     

Functional Equivalence of Sleep Loss and Time on Task Effects in Sustained Attention

Research on sleep loss and vigilance both focus on declines in cognitive performance, but theoretical accounts have developed largely in parallel in these two areas. In addition, computational instantiations of theoretical accounts are rare. The current work uses computational modeling to explore whether the same mechanisms can account for the effects of both sleep loss and time on task on performance. A classic task used in the sleep deprivation literature, the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT), was extended from the typical 10‐min duration to 35 min, to make the task similar in duration to traditional vigilance tasks. A computational cognitive model demonstrated that the effects of time on task in the PVT were equivalent to those observed with sleep loss. Subsequently, the same mechanisms were applied to a more traditional vigilance task—the Mackworth Clock Task—providing a good fit to existing data. This supports the hypothesis that these different types of fatigue may produce functionally equivalent declines in performance.     

Data acquisition system for precision eye-fixation studies

A system has been developed to sense and record eye point-of-gaze for on-line computer processing, using a Mackworth camera in conjunction with a closed-circuit television system. System optics and electronics are described, together with computer software for system calibration and automatic artifact removal.     

A Brief History of Metacognitive Therapy: From Cognitive Science to Clinical Practice

Metacognitive therapy (MCT) is proving to be an effective treatment for anxiety and depression with effects that may exceed CBT. It has been described as a paradigm shift in psychotherapy in its theory-driven cognitive science approach and systematic development and evaluation. MCT was developed by Adrian Wells based on an information processing theory, the Self-Regulatory Executive Function model by Wells and Matthews. MCT theory formulates psychological disorders as sharing common causal factors under the influence of metacognition, representing a particular top-down model of biases in cognitive regulation. A key clinical implication was that a core set of interventions could be developed to impact a wide range of symptoms and disorders. In this paper, we trace the historical development of MCT and the major studies that informed theory and practice with the aim of introducing clinicians and researchers to this area and to understand why the metacognitive approach has developed into a treatment that is proving to be potentially more effective than current gold-standard treatments. In doing so, we will draw out the distinctive features of the approach and explore how this might offer a blueprint for scientific advancement in clinical psychology and psychotherapy.     

On-line,real-time recording of eye orientation using the corneal reflection method

The orientation of a subject’s eyes can be automatically sampled in real time at 60 Hz using Mackworth’s corneal reflection method, a closed circuit TV system with a brightness-amplitude trigger, and a minicomputer. The organization of the electronic interface and software (for recording and behavioral control) is described, along with the characteristics of the recording system and potential sources of artifact. Sample calibration and experimental data are presented.     

A pilot randomized trial of metacognitive therapy vs applied relaxation in the treatment of adults with generalized anxiety disorder

Metacognitive Therapy (MCT) and Applied Relaxation (AR) were compared in a pilot treatment trial of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Twenty outpatients meeting criteria for DSM-IV-TR GAD were assessed before treatment, after treatment and at 6 m and 12 m follow-up. The patients were randomized and treated individually for 8-12 weekly sessions. There was no drop-out from MCT and 10% at 6 m follow-up from AR. At post-treatment and at both follow-up points MCT was superior to AR. Standardized recovery rates for MCT at post-treatment were 80% on measures of worry and trait-anxiety compared with 10% following AR. At 6 m follow-up recovery rates for MCT were 70% on both measures compared with 10% and 20% for AR. At 12 m follow-up recovery rates for MCT were 80% (worry) and 60% (trait-anxiety) compared with 10% and 20% following AR. The recovery rates for MCT are similar to those obtained in an earlier uncontrolled trial (Wells & King, 2006). The effect sizes and standardized recovery rates for MCT suggest that it is a highly effective treatment.     

Metacognitive Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Nature,Evidence and an Individual Case Illustration

Metacognitive therapy (MCT) is based on over 25 years of research focusing on the processes that contribute to the development and maintenance of psychological disorders. The approach identifies a common set of processes in psychopathology, and MCT shows promising results in effectively treating a range of disorders. This paper presents the central theoretical tenets of MCT and uses a clinical vignette to illustrate the structure and techniques of treatment based on Wells's (2009) manual as they relate to a specific case of generalized anxiety disorder.     

Supplementary Study of Superstitious Belief Among College Students

A brief, reliable measure of sexual knowledge would be of obvious value in studies of family planning, population, and related issues. A 49-item test of sexual information was created by Miller and Fisk in 1969. Analysis of this device on a sample of 104 Ss suggested that a shorter and more convenient version could be developed. Deletion of 25 questions with weak or unacceptable statistical properties left 24 items for retention in a revised questionnaire. This 24-item version was then administered to new samples including 287 males and 246 females, permitting specification of provisional normative and interpretational data.     

The psychometric properties of the short version of the Cybernetic Coping Scale: A multigroup confirmatory factor analysis across four samples

Throughout the literature, there appears to be little support for the psychometric characteristics of scales measuring coping behaviour. This article explores the psychometric properties of the 20‐item version of the Cybernetic Coping Scale (CCS; Edwards & Baglioni, 1993). Initially, confirmatory factor analysis and internal reliability analysis were conducted on large samples of data from four different studies in order to conduct an exhaustive examination of the scale. Results provided moderate support for the 20‐item version of the CCS. However, improved model modification produced moderate to strong support for a 15‐item version. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis was then conducted on the 15‐item version of the CCS in order to cross‐validate the measurement model across groups. Findings revealed a wellfitting model with a stable factor structure and partial measurement invariance. Both versions produced acceptable to high internal reliability. Findings indicate support for the use of the 15‐item version of the CCS and suggest that this short version of the CCS is the best fitting model of all the other previously developed CCS scales.     

On the nature of central processing in choice reactions

A procedure for generating values of central processing uncertainty was developed from positive response data in a varied-set version of the Sternberg choice reaction task. This is a logical extension of a previously validated procedure for data from a fixed-set version of the same task. Both procedures provide information on the additive components of reaction time. It was concluded that S resolves more uncertainty in the varied-set than in the fixed-set situation. It was concluded also that S performs a rechecking operation prior to emitting a negative response, and this rechecking apparently involves less information than does the original testing for stimulus classification. This, in turn, suggests that rechecking is a self-terminating process with regard to display information. The results also imply that stimulus classification is partially serial and partially parallel, so a hybrid model may be appropriate for this task.     

Concurrent schedule control of human visual target fixations

Operant conditioning techniques were applied to the study of how target fixations are controlled by the probability of signal occurrence. In a standard vigilance setting, gaze at three illuminable volt meters was monitored by a Mackworth television eye camera with automatic recording capability. Gaze at a given meter produced illumination of the meter, and signals (deflections of the needle on the meter) were scheduled as intermittent consequences of this response. Target fixations were thus placed under the control of concurrent variable-ratio, differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate, and fixed-interval schedules in normal adult volunteers.     

The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire: Factor Structure and Psychometric Properties of the Turkish Version

The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ; Garnefski et al., Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 1311–1327, 2001) is a multidimensional questionnaire that was developed to assess cognitive emotion regulation strategies people use after experiencing negative life events or situations. The purpose of the present study was to develop a Turkish version of the CERQ and to examine its psychometric properties in a sample of Turkish university students. The English version of the CERQ was translated and back-translated prior to its administration to 396 participants recruited from several universities in Turkey. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, inter-scale reliability, construct and criterion-related validity of the Turkish version were analyzed. The results indicated that the data collected with the Turkish version do also support the original nine-factor model; with reliability and validity measures comparable to the original one.     

Lateralization of defence mechanisms: Differing influences on perception with left and right visual field presentation of anxiety-arousing stimulation

Forty-five undergraduate students were randomly divided into two groups and tested with the Meta-Contrast Technique (MCT), in the left or right visual field (VF). In the MCT, the presentation of a subliminal threatening picture is intended to evoke anxiety and ego mechanisms of defence against it. More signs of repressive plus isolating defences were found in the left hemisphere (LH) group. Signs of projection plus regression tended to be more common in the right hemisphere (RH) group. The total number of anxiety signs in the MCT protocols did not differ between the groups. A clear sex difference was noticed, namely that the female LH and RH groups showed significant lateralization, while the male groups did not differ significantly on a combined defensive score. The data suggest that the left and right hemispheres may show differing perceptual styles, which are described as ego mechanisms of defence in the psychoanalytic literature.     

Metacognitive therapy in recurrent depression: A case replication series in Denmark

Metacognitive therapy (MCT) for depression is derived from the Wells and Matthews (1994) self‐regulatory model, in which a Cognitive‐Attentional Syndrome (CAS) is the cause of psychological disorders. MCT for depression focuses on identifying patients' CAS and helps them to stop it. The CAS consists of worry, rumination and dysfunctional coping strategies. The focus in MCT is on removing the CAS by challenging positive and negative metacognitive beliefs and eliminating dysfunctional behaviors. In this case series, MCT was delivered to four depressed Danes and treatment was evaluated in 5–11 sessions of up to one hour each. An A‐B design with follow‐up at 3 and 6 months was conducted and the primary outcome was Beck's Depression Inventory II (BDI‐II). We measured CAS processes with the Major depressive Disorder Scale (MDD‐S). The results of the case series showed clinically significant improvements in depressive symptoms, rumination and metacognitive beliefs and the effects were still present at follow‐up for all patients. The small number of patients and decreasing baselines observed in some cases limits the conclusions. However, the results suggest that this treatment is feasible and was associated with large improvements in symptoms when delivered away from its point of origin and in a Danish help‐seeking sample.     

The Effectiveness of Group Metacognitive Therapy for Generalised Anxiety Disorder: A Pilot Study

Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) responds well to individually delivered metacognitive therapy (MCT). The current study investigated the effectiveness of MCT administered to groups of patients with GAD in a general outpatient treatment centre. Thirty-three consecutively referred adult patients with GAD were assessed before treatment (pretreatment), after the last treatment session (posttreatment), and six months after treatment had ended (follow-up). Analyses of treatment effects were conducted for all patients entering the study (i.e., intent-to-treat analysis, using the last-observation-carried-forward procedure), and repeated for the patients who completed treatment (completers analysis), using paired samples t-tests. Further, effect sizes (ESs) and indices of clinical significance were calculated, and compared with those reported in studies into the efficacy and effectiveness of individually delivered MCT for GAD. Among both the intent-to-treat and the completers sample, large pre- to posttreatment reductions in symptoms of worry, trait-anxiety, and general psychopathology. The magnitude of change and the degree of clinical significance were smaller than those reported in studies into the effectiveness of individually delivered MCT for GAD, whereas the attrition rate (27 %) was higher. It is tentatively concluded that MCT for GAD can be effectively delivered in a group format in a heterogenous clinical practice setting. Further evaluation is clearly indicated.     

Randomized controlled trial on the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy and intolerance-of-uncertainty therapy for generalized anxiety disorder

This randomized controlled trial compared the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy (MCT) and intolerance-of-uncertainty therapy (IUT) for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in an outpatient context. Patients with GAD (N = 126) consecutively referred to an outpatient treatment center for anxiety disorder were randomly allocated to MCT, IUT, or a delayed treatment (DT) condition. Patients were treated individually for up to 14 sessions. Assessments were conducted before treatment (pretreatment), after the last treatment session (posttreatment), and six months after treatment had ended (follow-up). At posttreatment and follow-up assessments, substantial improvements were observed in both treatment conditions across all outcome variables. Both MCT and IUT, but not DT, produced significant reductions in GAD-specific symptoms with large effect sizes (ranging between 0.94 and 2.39) and high proportions of clinically significant change (ranging between 77% and 95%) on various outcome measures, and the vast majority of the patients (i.e., 91% in the MCT group, and 80% in the IUT group) no longer fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for GAD. Results further indicate that MCT produced better results than IUT. This was evident on most outcome measures, and also reflected in effect sizes and degree of clinical response and recovery.     

Further evidence for the efficacy of a metacognitive group training in schizophrenia

Metacognitive training (MCT) for patients with schizophrenia is a novel psychological group treatment targeting cognitive biases putatively involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia (e.g. jumping to conclusions, overconfidence in errors). Its eight modules are available cost-free online in many languages. In the present study, 36 subacute or remitted patients were randomly allocated to either the MCT or a wait-list group who received treatment-as-usual (TAU). Baseline and post assessments were 8 weeks apart and were performed blind to group status. MCT showed significantly greater improvement on the following parameters relative to the TAU group: delusion distress (PSYRATS), memory and social quality of life. In the MCT group, the rate of jumping to conclusions bias was reduced after training. No differences occurred on the PANSS. The present study confirms prior reports that MCT exerts beneficial effects on some cognitive and symptomatic parameters.     

A comparison of the influence of handle load and of unfavourable atmospheric conditions on a tracking task

An experiment was made to determine the extent to which the performance of a tracking task was adversely influenced by simulated tropical environmental conditions, by comparing this effect with that of loading the control handle with weights. The pursuitmeter used was similar to that used by Mackworth (1948) when he showed that the accuracy of performance was reduced under tropical conditions. The score of error was the total angular separation between the target and follower pointers expressed in arbitrary units. It was found that as the room temperature was raised from approximately 80° to 90° on the Effective Temperature scale, this score increased in the ratio 1-13, an increase which was also obtained by increasing the load on the control handle from 8 to 30 lb. There were also indications that the effect of room temperature was greater with higher handle loads. The effect on performance was not correlated with rectal temperature or with the amount of weight lost.