Cognitive complexity in response to traumatic experiences

Two studies examined how personality motives influence the perception of traumatic events in memory and how such perception may be linked to psychological distress. Participants completed implicit and explicit measures of agentic and communal motives. In Study 1, participants living in New York City at the time of the terrorist attacks wrote their thoughts and feelings about the events of September 11th. In Study 2, participants wrote about a personally traumatic experience. In both studies, they also completed questionnaires on psychological symptoms and stress-related growth. The memories were then scored for differentiation and integration. Agentic motives correlated with differentiated perceptions and differentiation was linked to dissociative symptoms in Study 2. Communal motives related to integrated perceptions, and integration related to stress-related growth in both studies. Findings suggest that motives play a significant role in the perception of traumatic and difficult experiences and that these perceptions may be differentially linked to psychological impact.     

The social dynamics of a cultural upheaval: social interactions surrounding September 11, 2001

Using the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR), a new methodology for sampling behavioral data in naturalistic settings, we tracked the social lives of 11 people by recording 30-s snippets of ambient sounds in their environment approximately every 12 min. Participants wore the EAR continuously for 10 days from September 11, 2001. Pre-September 11 baseline data were available for all participants. Analyses of the coded sound information showed that although participants did not change in their overall amount of interactions, they gradually shifted from group conversations to dyadic interactions. Exploratory analyses revealed that a relative increase in dyadic interactions over the first 10 days after September 11 was marginally related to better psychological adjustment at follow-up. The findings have relevance for the understanding of stress and affiliation and normal psychological reactions to emergencies.     

Threat appraisals, distress and the development of positive life changes after September 11th in a Canadian sample

Several surveys have reported the negative psychological impact on the general public of the terrorist attacks in the USA of September 11th, 2001. Yet the attacks also led many people to make positive changes in their relationships, values and priorities. A survey of 80 adults in Ottawa, Canada demonstrated that greater perceived threat and greater initial distress reactions significantly predicted the extent to which people reported positive changes in their lives (e.g. closer to family, refocused priorities). Initial distress and greater perceived threat also correlated positively with whether people provided help after the disaster. Follow-up data on 40 of these participants 11 months later revealed significant stability over time for the extent of positive life changes reported, and demonstrated that degree of initial distress and perceived threat continued to correlate positively with life change reports at this later point in time. The data are consistent with the argument that the perception of growth may develop out of one's personal experience of emotional pain.     

Stress symptoms one year after 9/11/01: a follow-up

This study investigated whether stress symptoms related to attention deficit previously found for a sample (n= 149) of Chicago-area college students 1 to 5 weeks after the September 11th attacks were present in a comparable sample (n = 129) 12 to 14 months later. As hypothesized, the later participants had a significantly lower mean score on the scale, Attention Deficit of the Smith Stress Symptoms Inventory, than a different group of participants tested immediately after the attacks. Mean Attention Deficit scores for groups after one year and immediately before September 11th (n=320) did not differ statistically. Findings are consistent with the interpretation that elevations in scores on Attention Deficit immediately after September 11th were indeed associated with the catastrophic attacks and not artifacts of time of examination. Consistent with previous research with this inventory, disaster-related traumatic stress scores are lower over time, although here no control group was included.     

Memories of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001: a study of the consistency and phenomenal characteristics of flashbulb memories

In this study, I investigated students' memories of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, carried out by Al Qaeda terrorists against the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington. Participants completed on two occasions (2 weeks and 8 months after the events took place) a memory questionnaire that included an assessment of the phenomenal richness of their memories. The results showed that the participants remembered very well the circumstances in which they first heard about the terrorist attacks, that they were very confident about this information, and that these memories were characterized by a high phenomenal richness. Over time, there was a decrease in all of these variables, but people's ratings of phenomenology and confidence were still very high.     

Effects of September 11 on patients with obsessive compulsive disorder

Effects of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the USA were investigated in 25 patients with obsessive compulsive disorder and 27 normal controls 4–6 months after the attacks. Participants completed a 15‐item questionnaire to retrospectively assess changes in mood, cognition, behavior and somatic complaints since September 11, 2001. Overall, both patients with obsessive compulsive disorder and normal controls reported minor changes in mood, behavior and somatic complaints. However, normal controls reported severe to extreme initial impact, slightly more cognitive symptoms (uncertainty about the future, intrusive recollections and greater desire to be with loved ones) and a slightly greater degree of overall impact on emotion and behavior at 1, 2 and 3 months after September 11 than did patients with obsessive compulsive disorder. Results support previous research that has found a relatively minor lasting impact of September 11 on both clinical and normal populations. Differences in cognition and coping mechanisms between normal controls and patients with obsessive compulsive disorder are proposed.     

Effects of September 11 on patients with obsessive compulsive disorder

Effects of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the USA were investigated in 25 patients with obsessive compulsive disorder and 27 normal controls 4-6 months after the attacks. Participants completed a 15-item questionnaire to retrospectively assess changes in mood, cognition, behavior and somatic complaints since September 11, 2001. Overall, both patients with obsessive compulsive disorder and normal controls reported minor changes in mood, behavior and somatic complaints. However, normal controls reported severe to extreme initial impact, slightly more cognitive symptoms (uncertainty about the future, intrusive recollections and greater desire to be with loved ones) and a slightly greater degree of overall impact on emotion and behavior at 1, 2 and 3 months after September 11 than did patients with obsessive compulsive disorder. Results support previous research that has found a relatively minor lasting impact of September 11 on both clinical and normal populations. Differences in cognition and coping mechanisms between normal controls and patients with obsessive compulsive disorder are proposed.     

Psychological sequelae of remote exposure to the September 11th terrorist attacks in Canadians with and without panic

The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the psychological impact of remote exposure to the events and aftermath of the terrorist attacks in the USA on September 11th, 2001, and to assess what differences, if any, exist between individuals classified with probable panic disorder and those without. Telephone interviews were conducted with 122 residents of the capital city of the Canadian prairie province of Saskatchewan in spring 2002 in order to gather information regarding current mood, fears and avoidance behaviours as well as current post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms specific to September 11th. Consistent with previous findings and despite the remote nature of exposure, results indicated that the psychological well-being and behaviour of participants with probable panic disorder was more adversely affected by the events and aftermath of September 11th than those without panic disorder. These results suggest that remote viewing of traumatic events can have a significant and lingering impact on psychological well-being and behaviour and that these effects are more pronounced in those with panic disorder. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.     

The Political Is Personal: Narrating 9/11 and Psychological Well-Being

ABSTRACT Making meaning out of negative experiences is one of the primary psychological challenges in the wake of adversity. Much of the empirical attention that psychologists have paid to meaning making has focused on personal hardships, but national tragedies similarly pose a challenge to meaning making. In the present study, which is grounded in the theoretical tradition of the narrative study of lives, a nationally representative sample of 395 adults wrote accounts about the 9/11 terrorist attacks approximately 2 months after 9/11. Accounts were coded for 3 narrative themes: closure, redemption, and contamination. Psychological well-being was significantly related to accounts that were high in closure and national redemption and, among those more directly exposed to the attacks, accounts high in redemptive imagery. Psychological distress was significantly related to accounts that were low in closure and high in themes of personal contamination. Understanding the narrative styles that characterize personal accounts of political events has important ramifications for the study of the socially embedded individual.     

The good, the bad, and the healthy: impacts of emotional disclosure of trauma on resilient self-concept and psychological distress

This study examined the impact of disclosing traumas on resilient self-perceptions and psychological distress. Participants (N = 50) wrote about a traumatic life event or their plans for the next day and completed measures of resilience and distress before disclosing (pretest) and 3 months later (posttest). Results revealed that trauma participants increased in positive self-perceptions (mastery, personal growth, self-acceptance) and decreased in distress (depression, interpersonal sensitivity, anxiety, somatization) from pretest to posttest. Control participants showed no changes except for autonomy, on which they decreased. Results suggest that in addition to reducing psychological distress, disclosing traumas change self-perception, resulting in a more resilient self-concept.     

At the forefront of thought: The effect of media exposure on airplane typicality

The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 provided a unique opportunity to investigate the causal status of frequency on typicality for one exemplar of a common conceptual category-namely, the typicality ofairplane as a member of the category ofvehicles. The extensive media coverage following the attacks included numerous references to the hijacked airplanes and to the consequences of suspending air travel to and from the United States for several days. The present study, involving 152 undergraduates, assessed airplane typicality at three time points ranging from 5 h to 1 month after the attacks and then again at 4.5 months after the attacks. Airplane was judged to be a more typical vehicle for 1 month following the attacks, relative to a baseline calculated from data collected yearly for 5 years preceding the attacks. By 4.5 months, however, typicality was back to baseline.     

Psychological sequelae of remote exposure to the September 11th terrorist attacks in Canadians with and without panic

The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the psychological impact of remote exposure to the events and aftermath of the terrorist attacks in the USA on September 11th, 2001, and to assess what differences, if any, exist between individuals classified with probable panic disorder and those without. Telephone interviews were conducted with 122 residents of the capital city of the Canadian prairie province of Saskatchewan in spring 2002 in order to gather information regarding current mood, fears and avoidance behaviours as well as current post‐traumatic stress disorder symptoms specific to September 11th. Consistent with previous findings and despite the remote nature of exposure, results indicated that the psychological well‐being and behaviour of participants with probable panic disorder was more adversely affected by the events and aftermath of September 11th than those without panic disorder. These results suggest that remote viewing of traumatic events can have a significant and lingering impact on psychological well‐being and behaviour and that these effects are more pronounced in those with panic disorder. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.     

Forgiving the September 11th terrorists: associations with coping, psychological distress, and religiosity

Two studies examined how non-interpersonal forgiveness (when there is no social relationship between the transgressor and forgiver) related to coping and involuntary responses to stress, psychological distress, and religiosity. Three to six weeks after September 11th, 2001, forgiveness had non-linear associations with other responses to the terrorist attacks. Among college students (N=488), those who were trying or had forgiven (pro-forgiveness) the terrorists reported less involuntary engagement, more primary and secondary control coping, and more meaning finding than those who were unsure about forgiveness (ambivalent) and those who did not believe the perpetrators should be forgiven (anti-forgiveness). Ambivalent students reported the most distress, even after controlling for religion. Anti-forgiveness students reported less religiosity than ambivalent and pro-forgiveness students. Most findings were consistent among middle schoolers (N=154), particularly regarding psychological distress and responses to stress. Also, forgiveness of strangers for acts against one's community functioned separately from religion.     

Self-enhancement among high-exposure survivors of the September 11th terrorist attack: resilience or social maladjustment?

The authors examined self-enhancing bias as a predictor of adjustment among individuals in or near the World Trade Center during the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Resilience was defined from categorical and continuous analyses of both participant self-report and friend and relative ratings of adjustment. Self-enhancement was associated with a resilient outcome, ratings of better adjustment prior to September 11th, greater positive affect, and reduced perceptions of social constraints. Additional analyses indicated that self-enhancers' reduced symptom levels were fully mediated by their low perceived social constraints. However, consistent with previous evidence suggesting a social cost to self-enhancement, at 18 months post-September 11th, self-enhancers' friends and relatives also rated them as decreasing in social adjustment and as being less honest.     

The Al Qaeda 9/11 instructions: a study in the construction of religious martyrdom

A growing global concern about suicide attacks has led to attempts from various disciplines to understand the psychological profiles of persons willing to commit suicide terrorist attacks. Recent reports have suggested that more powerful explanatory models might be discovered using social psychological concepts, with a shift of focus from the individual to the group within which the individual acts and by which the individual is influenced. This paper attempts to do so by presenting an analysis of the Al Qaeda ‘final instructions’ document, which sheds light on the way members of this group were mobilised towards conducting one of the most devastating assaults in modern history. We discuss the use of religious doctrine and rhetorical devices as a psychological strategy employed by this group to inspire, control and mobilise its members before and during the September 11, 2001, attacks.     

How do I love thee? Let me count the words: the social effects of expressive writing

Writing about emotional experiences is associated with a host of positive outcomes. This study extended the expressive-writing paradigm to the realm of romantic relationships to examine the social effects of writing. For 3 consecutive days, one person from each of 86 dating couples either wrote about his or her deepest thoughts and feelings about the relationship or wrote about his or her daily activities. In the days before and after writing, instant messages were collected from the couples. Participants who wrote about their relationship were significantly more likely to still be dating their romantic partners 3 months later. Linguistic analyses of the instant messages revealed that participants and their partners used significantly more positive and negative emotion words in the days following the expressive-writing manipulation if the participants had written about their relationship than if they had written about their daily activities. Increases in positive emotion words partially mediated the relation between expressive writing and relationship stability.     

A prospective investigation of the relationship between just-world beliefs and the desire for revenge after September 11, 2001

We prospectively examined the relationship between individuals' belief in a just world and their desire for revenge against the perpetrators of the September 11 terrorist attacks against the United States. Eighty-three undergraduate students who had completed a measure of just-world beliefs prior to the terrorist attacks were assessed approximately 2 months following the attacks. The more strongly they had endorsed just-world beliefs prior to the attacks, the more distressed they felt about the attacks and the more they desired revenge. Furthermore, the relationship between belief in a just world and the desire for revenge was mediated by feelings of distress in response to the terrorist attacks. The results point to the importance of justice beliefs in understanding responses to the terrorist attacks.     

Character strengths before and after September 11

Did Americans change following the September 11 terrorist attacks? We provide a tentative answer with respect to the positive traits included in the Values in Action Classification of Strengths and measured with a self-report questionnaire available on-line and completed by 4,817 respondents. When scores for individuals completing the survey in the 2 months immediately after September 11 were compared with scores for those individuals who completed the survey before September 11, seven character strengths showed increases: gratitude, hope, kindness, leadership, love, spirituality, and teamwork. Ten months after September 11, these character strengths were still elevated, although to a somewhat lesser degree than immediately following the attacks.     

Growing up in the shadow of terrorism: youth in America after 9/11

Research conducted in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks (9/11) suggests that, except for those who directly witnessed or suffered loss from the attacks, for most children the emotional impact was relatively transitory. We review this literature as well as consider other ways in which the attacks may have played a role in the development of adolescents and young adults as they came of age in the shadow of 9/11 in the United States. Specifically, we discuss the potential impact of the collective trauma of 9/11 on children's coping and emotional regulation, their sociopolitical attitudes, and their general beliefs about the world. Developmental issues and the role of parents in shaping their children's responses to 9/11 are also addressed. Researchers interested in children's social, emotional, and psychological development have much to learn about children's reactions to events like 9/11 and factors that might mitigate the negative consequences of such events on children's development.     

Effects on Volunteering of the September 11, 2001, Attacks: An Archival Analysis1

Data from a national online organization that matches volunteers with service organizations places volunteers were analyzed to answer questions regarding the impact of the September 11, 2001, attacks on volunteering in the United States. Results showed that: (a) following September 11, there was a dramatic increase in the number of people who offered to volunteering, and the increase lasted for about 3 weeks; (b) the greatest increase in volunteering occurred for crisis‐related organizations, but volunteering increased significantly for all kinds of charities and service organizations; and (c) the demographic correlates of volunteering changed little in the wake of the attacks. The results are discussed in the context of psychological theories of the factors that motivate prosocial actions.