Pupils' liking for school: Ability grouping,self‐concept and perceptions of teaching

Background. Research indicates that affective aspects of development provide a basis for autonomous learning. Pupils' liking for school may be a useful indicator of their relationships with teachers and the school. Aims. The aim of the research reported in this paper is to establish the properties of a measure of pupils' liking for school and to examine associations between this measure, pupils' experiences in lessons, their self‐concepts and the amount of setting implemented in school. Sample. A stratified sample of 45 mixed secondary comprehensive schools was selected for the research. Schools represented a variety of ability‐grouping practices in the lower school (Years 7–9), from completely mixed‐ability to setting in all academic subjects. All Year 9 pupils were included in the sample. Methods. Pupils completed a questionnaire containing items on their self‐concept, liking for school, and their perceptions of teaching in English, mathematics, and science. Data on pupils' gender, ethnic origin, social disadvantage and attainment was also collected. Results and conclusions. The properties and correlates of scales indicating pupils' liking for school and their perceptions of teaching in English, mathematics, and science are established. Liking for school is greater among girls, pupils with higher academic self‐concepts, and those with more positive perceptions of teaching. Pupils are more positive about teaching they experience in English than in mathematics or science. When other variables are statistically controlled, there is no significant effect of the extent of ability grouping in the school as a whole. Affective aspects of learning should not be neglected in the drive to raise standards.     

Emergent literacy and early writing skills

In the present study, the authors aimed to assess the short- and long-term predictive power of the various components of an emergent literacy model on early writing abilities in a language with a mainly transparent orthography (Italian). Emergent literacy skills were assessed in 72 children (M age = 5.05 years, SD = +/- .03) who were followed longitudinally from preschool to the end of the first grade of primary school. Their early writing abilities (orthographic correctness in writing individual words) and their advanced writing abilities (orthographic correctness in text writing) were tested at the beginning and at the end of the school year. Multiple stepwise and logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the predictive capacities of emergent literacy abilities on early and advanced writing competences. Results show that notational competence is a strong predictor of early writing skills and that phonological competence only has an effect insofar as it is integrated with notational competence. Emergent literacy competences do not significantly predict orthographic errors in advanced text writing. This research allows for reconsideration of the importance of phonological awareness and gives a central role to notational competence in predicting early writing competence.     

A cognitive perspective on Singaporean primary school pupils' use of reading strategies in learning to read in English

Background . This study is conducted in Singapore, where learning to read in English is regarded as essential because it is offered as a First Language (L1) subject in the curriculum and is stipulated as the medium of instruction in the education system, and the mother tongues are offered as Second Language (L2) subjects, although the majority still learn English as an L2. Aims . The paper reports on the reading strategies used by Singaporean primary school pupils from a cognitive perspective, which is part of a larger study that aims to investigate these pupils' language learning strategies. Sample . The participants were 18 pupils from three neighbourhood primary schools, in grades Primary 4, 5 and 6. Method . The data were collected from high‐ and low‐proficiency pupils at each of the three grades in each school, who read two texts at each level. Grounded in an information‐processing theory and based on successful experiences of scholars using think‐aloud for data collection, we asked the pupils to read and report what they were thinking about while reading. The think‐aloud protocols were recorded, transcribed verbatim, coded and analysed. Results . The results suggest that participants' flexible and appropriate use of reading strategies varies according to language proficiency and grade level, with the high‐proficiency group outperforming its lower‐proficiency counterpart and the high‐graders outnumbering the lower‐graders in terms of the number of strategies that they used. These differences were also exemplified with qualitative findings from case studies. Conclusions . The use of reading strategies differs according to proficiency levels, and the quality of pupils' strategy‐use patterns has more significant implications for understanding efficient reading among primary school pupils.     

National campaign effects on secondary pupils' bullying and violence

Background. Research on pupils' bullying (1991) and violence (1993) motivated the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science to initiate a national campaign on school safety. The government campaign was undertaken from 1995 to 2000. Aim. To test for differences in secondary pupils' bullying and violence before and after the campaign while controlling for different contextual variables. Samples. In 1991, a representative survey on bullying was conducted in 36 secondary schools with 1,055 pupils from Year 2 and 4 classes (age range 13–16 years). In 1993, a survey on violent behaviour took place in 71 secondary schools with 1,998 pupils from Year 3 and 4 classes (age range 14–16 years). In 2000, a survey on bullying and violence was conducted in 60 secondary schools with 9,948 pupils from Year 1 to 6 classes (age range 12–18 years). Methods. The data from pupils in identical school years were compared with respect to bullying (1991–2000) and violence (1993–2000). The statistical relations were analysed in two stepwise multiple regression analyses. Year of investigation (1991–2000, 1993–2000) was the respective dependent variable. The independent variables were pupils' bullying or violence scores, sex, school year, contextual lesson, school, and community variables. Results. In both regression analyses, the contextual lesson and school variables discriminated between the measurement years. Also, compared with 1991, the pupils in 2000 scored lower for being a bully and higher for being bullied directly. Compared with 1993, the pupils in 2000 scored lower for being a victim of intentional damage to property or emotional violence, lower for being a perpetrator of disruptive behaviour in school, and higher for being a perpetrator of intentional damage to property. Conclusions. The differences between the contextual variables measured before and after the campaign reflect changes in educational and instructional situations. Independent of these differences, the national campaign appears to have helped improve the awareness of pupils' social behaviour and elicit, in particular, a decrease in pupils' violent behaviour. However, more specific pedagogical and preventative support for pupils socially at risk appears to be needed to have a more prosocial impact on the behaviour of secondary school pupils.     

The effect of month of birth on the attainments of primary and secondary school pupils

Background Previous research has produced conflicting results regarding the effects of season of birth and age‐position on cognitive attainments. In Northern Ireland the school year divides the summer season into two providing an opportunity to evaluate the relative contribution of season of birth and age‐position effects. Aims To investigate the relationship between attainment in literacy skills and month of birth for primary and secondary school pupils and to determine the relationship between motor skills and month of birth in primary school pupils. Sample One thousand one hundred and twenty four primary school pupils participated, and results for key stage 3 (KS3) English and GCSE English Language, for 3,493 Year 10 and 3,697 Year 12 secondary school pupils, respectively, were obtained. Method Primary school pupils were individually assessed using standardised reading and spelling tests, as well as tests of motor skill. They were also assessed using a standardised group reading test in their class groups. For the secondary school pupils, the results for two year cohorts, in KS3 English and GCSE English language, respectively, were analysed. Results For the primary school pupils there was evidence of both a season of birth and an age‐position effect on all of the cognitive measures, particularly in the early years of schooling. There was, also, evidence of a significant age‐position effect at both KS3 and GCSE in favour of the older pupils. For the younger primary school pupils there was evidence of significant age‐position effects on both motor measures. Conclusions The findings from the present study suggest that month of birth may be related to both season of birth and age‐position effects. These effects may be compounded, particularly in the early years of primary school, when summer born children are youngest in their year, as in England. In Northern Ireland, age‐position effects are also evident in secondary school public examination results, which may have implications for long‐term life choices.     

Emergent Literacy and Early Writing Skills

In the present study, the authors aimed to assess the short- and long-term predictive power of the various components of an emergent literacy model on early writing abilities in a language with a mainly transparent orthography (Italian). Emergent literacy skills were assessed in 72 children (M age = 5.05 years, SD = ± .03) who were followed longitudinally from preschool to the end of the first grade of primary school. Their early writing abilities (orthographic correctness in writing individual words) and their advanced writing abilities (orthographic correctness in text writing) were tested at the beginning and at the end of the school year. Multiple stepwise and logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the predictive capacities of emergent literacy abilities on early and advanced writing competences. Results show that notational competence is a strong predictor of early writing skills and that phonological competence only has an effect insofar as it is integrated with notational competence. Emergent literacy competences do not significantly predict orthographic errors in advanced text writing. This research allows for reconsideration of the importance of phonological awareness and gives a central role to notational competence in predicting early writing competence.     

School Achievement of Immigrant Children: The Decreasing Influence of Ethnic Concentration

There is an ongoing debate in many countries about the assumed negative influence of ethnically concentrated schools on pupils’ cognitive development. This paper addresses the influence of concentrations of ethnic minority children in schools on the school achievement of their pupils. The analysis covers the period 1988–2004 and is based on a very large (60,000 pupils in each edition) longitudinal survey of the school achievement of primary school pupils, which was held every 2 years in the Netherlands. It reveals that the educational achievements of pupils from ethnic minority groups are improving, more so in arithmetic than in language. The paper examines whether ethnically concentrated schools make up the gap. We find that ethnically concentrated schools appear to become more and more adept at dealing with the educational disadvantage of ethnic minority children: they are making greater progress in educational achievement than schools with few ethnic minority children. Over the 15-year period studied, ethnically concentrated schools have removed around half the language disadvantage compared to ‘white’ schools, and as much as even three-quarters of the gap in arithmetic.     

Multi‐level aspects of social cohesion of secondary schools and pupils' feelings of safety

Background. School safety and corresponding feelings of both pupils and school staff are beginning to receive more and more attention. The social cohesion characteristics of a school may be useful in promoting feelings of safety, particularly in pupils. Aims. To conceptualize theoretically, and check empirically a two‐level model of social cohesion between and within schools, in order to explain a pupil's feelings of safety at school. Samples. Data were collected aided by a national Dutch survey in secondary education carried out via the Internet. In 2008, digital questionnaires were completed by about 78,800 pupils, 6,200 teachers and educational support staff, and 600 school managers. Methods. Data were checked for reliability and representativity. Social cohesion was indicated by self‐reported measures of individual pupils and by aggregating scale and item scores of school managers, teachers, and other support staff within schools. Multi‐level analysis using individual pupil data and school‐level data was performed using MLwiN. Results. A pupil's age, educational attainment level, experience of mild physical violence, prosocial rules of conduct and joint control of these rules, and school measures against playing truant, show positive influences on a pupil's feelings of safety at school. Negative influences are exerted by not feeling most at home in The Netherlands, peers taking drugs and weapons into school, and by experiencing social violence, severe physical violence, and sexual violence. Negative school effects exist simultaneously in severe physical violence experienced by teachers and other staff, and in curriculum differentiation applied by teachers and other staff; a positive school effect is school size. Some interaction effects between pupil and school‐level variables were explored. Conclusions. The variance at school level is relatively low compared with the variance at pupil level. However, a much higher percentage of variance at school level than at pupil level is explained with respect to the pupils' feelings of safety at school. The resulting two‐level model also reflects the streaming of pupils in Dutch secondary schools. To improve school safety, the national results emphasize the need to enhance prosocial behaviour rules and to enhance the shared control of these rules between teachers and pupils. They also emphasize the need for the school to take measures that prevent truancy and redefine curriculum differentiation procedures. National educational policy and research can combine efforts to assist schools in developing reliable and valid procedures to increase effectively safety in and around schools.     

Consistency in reasoning test scores over time

Background: UK schools have a long history of using reasoning tests, most frequently of Verbal Reasoning (VR), Non‐Verbal Reasoning (NVR), and to a lesser extent Quantitative Reasoning (QR). Results are used for identifying students' learning needs, for grouping students, for identifying underachievement, and for providing indicators of future academic performance. Despite this widespread use there are little empirical data on the long‐term consistency of VR, QR and NVR as discrete abilities. Aims: To evaluate and compare the consistency of VR, QR and NVR scores over a 3‐year period, and to explore the influence of the secondary school on pupils' progress in the tests. Sample: Data were collected on a longitudinal sample of over 10,000 pupils who completed the Cognitive Abilities Test Second Edition in year 6 (age 10+) and year 9 (age 13+), and GCSE public examinations in year 11 (age 15+). Methods: Correlation coefficients and change scores for individual pupils are calculated. Multilevel modelling is used to determine school effects on reasoning scores and GCSE public examination results. Results: The results reveal high correlations in scores over time, ranging from .87 for VR to .76 for NVR, but also show around one‐sixth of pupils on the VR test and one‐fifth of pupils on the QR and NVR tests change their scores by 10 or more standard score points. Schools account for only a small part of the total variation in reasoning score, although they account for a much greater proportion of the variation in measures of attainment such as GCSE. School effects on pupils' progress in the reasoning tests between age 10 and age 13 are relatively modest. Conclusions: Reasoning tests make excellent baseline assessments for secondary schools. Some practical and policy implications for schools are discussed.     

The effects of selective schooling and self‐concept on adolescents' academic aspiration: An examination of Dweck's self‐theory

Background. Dweck has emphasized the role of pupils' implicit theories about intellectual ability in explaining variations in their engagement, persistence and achievement. She has also highlighted the role of confidence in one's intelligence as a factor influencing educational attainment. Aim. The aim of this paper is to develop a model of achievement aspiration in adolescence and to compare young people who are educated at a selective grammar school with those who attend a non‐selective ‘secondary modern’ school. Sample. The sample consisted of 856 English secondary school pupils in years 7 and 10 from two selective and two non‐selective secondary schools. Method. Questionnaires were completed in schools. Results. The findings are consistent with the model, showing that achievement aspiration is predicted directly by gender, school type and type of intelligence theory. Importantly, school type also affects aspirations indirectly, with effects being mediated by confidence in one's own intelligence and perceived academic performance. Intelligence theory also affects aspirations indirectly with effects being mediated by perceived academic performance, confidence and self‐esteem. Additionally, intelligence theory has a stronger effect on aspirations in the selective schools than in the non‐selective schools. Conclusions. The findings provide substantial support for Dweck's self‐theory, showing that implicit theories are related to aspirations. However, the way in which theory of intelligence relates to age and gender suggests there may be important cross‐cultural or contextual differences not addressed by Dweck's theory. Further research should also investigate the causal paths between aspirations, implicit theories of intelligence and the impact of school selection.     

Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: evidence from a longitudinal structural model

This study examined code-related and oral language precursors to reading in a longitudinal study of 626 children from preschool through 4th grade. Code-related precursors, including print concepts and phonological awareness, and oral language were assessed in preschool and kindergarten. Reading accuracy and reading comprehension skills were examined in 1st through 4th grades. Results demonstrated that (a) the relationship between code-related precursors and oral language is strong during preschool; (b) there is a high degree of continuity over time of both code-related and oral language abilities; (c) during early elementary school, reading ability is predominantly determined by the level of print knowledge and phonological awareness a child brings from kindergarten; and (d) in later elementary school, reading accuracy and reading comprehension appear to be 2 separate abilities that are influenced by different sets of skills.     

Assessing pupil concerns about transition to secondary school

Background. The primary–secondary transition can negatively affect pupils' emotional and psychological adjustment. However, methods for assessing concerns regarding secondary school are limited. A reliable and valid measure of transition‐related concerns would be useful both in evaluating and shaping the content and delivery of universal and targeted transition support programmes. Aims. To assess the validity of a quantitative self‐report measure of school concerns as an assessment tool during the primary–secondary school transition. Sample. A UK sample of 147 Year 6 primary school pupils and 263 Year 7 secondary school pupils. Method. Self‐reports of school concerns and school liking as well as self‐reported and peer assessments on a range of psychological adjustment measures were collected. Results. The School Concerns Questionnaire (SCQ) showed good reliability at primary and secondary school. Secondary concerns reduced significantly post‐transition. Three factors emerged from an exploratory factor analysis of the SCQ and the pattern of results was replicated for post‐transition concerns. Pupils with higher school concerns at secondary school reported reduced liking of school and reduced trust and respect for teachers. The SCQ was associated with generalized anxiety and female gender both pre‐and post‐transition. Peer problems and depression were associated with pre‐ and post‐transition concerns, respectively. Conclusions. The SCQ is a simple to complete, reliable, and valid tool for assessing primary–secondary transition concerns. It could serve a valuable role in the evaluation and development of universal and targeted school‐based initiatives that aim to promote positive secondary transition.     

I used to like it but now I don't: The effect of the transfer test in Northern Ireland on pupils' intrinsic motivation

Background. Research has suggested that the pressure of exams could undermine pupils' interest in their subjects, but almost all of this research has been conducted in laboratory settings. The Transfer Test in Northern Ireland provides an unusual opportunity to assess the effects of exam pressure in real life because some 10‐ and 11‐year‐olds sit a Transfer Test to be admitted to grammar school while others are not tested until they are 14. Aim. To assess the effect of exams on pupils' interest in their subjects both during the period before the exam and after the results are known. Sample. The sample comprised 66 pupils preparing to sit the Transfer Test and 55 not preparing for the test. Method. Pupils' interest in their school subjects was assessed by questionnaires administered 2 weeks before the Transfer Test and then again 2 weeks after the results were announced. Results. Surprisingly, prior to sitting the test, there was no significant difference in motivation between the test and no‐test pupils. However, after sitting the test, the motivation of the test pupils decreased significantly relative to their no‐test counterparts, despite the fact that most achieved the grades they needed for admission to grammar school. Conclusions. Exams provide a valuable tool for assessing academic progress, but under some circumstances they can reduce pupils' interest in the subjects they are studying.     

The development of comprehension and reading‐related skills in children learning English as an additional language and their monolingual,English‐speaking peers

Background. A significant number of pupils in UK schools learn English as an additional language (EAL). Relative differences between the educational attainment of this group and monolingual, English‐speaking pupils call for an exploration of the literacy needs of EAL learners. Aims. This study explores the developmental progression of reading and listening comprehension skills and a range of reading‐related skills in EAL learners, whose first language is of South Asian origin, and their monolingual peers. Sample. Participants were 39 children learning EAL and 39 monolingual, English‐speaking children who were all in school Year 3 at the start of the study. Method. Children completed standardized measures of comprehension, vocabulary, reading accuracy, and reading fluency in school Year 3 and again in Year 4. Results. The results suggest that, although children learning EAL often demonstrate fast and accurate reading accuracy skills, lower levels of vocabulary knowledge place significant constraints on EAL learners' comprehension of spoken and written texts. Conclusions. Reciprocal relationships between vocabulary and comprehension may lead to increasing gaps in reading comprehension between monolingual and EAL pupils over time. It is proposed that support for the development of vocabulary skills in children learning EAL is needed in early years' classrooms.     

Evaluation of the effectiveness of an anti‐bullying programme in primary schools

A nationwide programme to prevent and manage bullying in Irish schools, based on that implemented in Norway in 1996, is currently being developed, and pilot work with a sample of primary schools within a single county of Ireland has been conducted and evaluated (the staff and pupils of 42 primary schools having been involved). A network of professionals (11 teachers) were trained to co‐ordinate the anti‐bullying programme in the schools, subsequent activities involving their training teachers (a total of 197) and parents in three to five schools each. In evaluation, pupils from 22 of the schools completed modified versions of the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire [Olweus, 1989; Whitney and Smith, 1993]. Teachers completed a questionnaire (concerning their knowledge and feelings about bullying [Rigby, 1997]) both before and after the implementation of the anti‐bullying training programme. Significant reductions were found in pupils' reports of having been victimised after the implementation of the programme. Overall, 19.6 per cent fewer children were victimised. There was a reduction of 50.0 per cent amongst those frequently victimised within the last school term, and of 43.0 per cent in reports of having been bullied within the last five school days. A reduction of 17.3 per cent in pupils' reports of having taken part in bullying others was also observed after the implementation of the programme. There were, in particular, significant reductions (69.2 per cent) in reports of frequently bullying others within the last school term, and of 51.8 per cent in reports of having taken part in bullying others within the last five school days. Whilst the programme was shown to reduce the incidence of pupils' involvement in bullying behaviour, the perennial challenge of attempting to increase the levels of pupils' reporting of bullying to teachers and parents remains a challenge for the authors to attend to in the further development of the nationwide anti‐bullying programme. Aggr. Behav. 00:1–14, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Mathematical Abilities in Elementary School Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Although clinical practitioners often express concerns about the mathematical functioning of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the field of mathematics remains a relatively unexplored topic in individuals with ASD. Moreover, research findings are fragmentary and hold inconclusive results. The present study aimed to examine whether grade 1 (aged 6–7 years) to 4 (aged 9–10 years) elementary school children with ASD scored significantly different from age‐adequate norms on mathematics. To this end, a multi‐componential approach of mathematics was used. Four domains of mathematics were assessed in 121 children with ASD: procedural calculation, number fact retrieval, word/language problems, and time‐related competences. All children attended general education classrooms, following the standard curriculum, and were coached by integrated educational services. Children with ASD showed a strength in word/language problems in second and fourth grade. There was evidence of a weakness for procedural calculation in first grade and for time‐related competences in first and third grade. In all other cases, average scores were shown. As such, results revealed a profile of strengths, average abilities, and weaknesses in mathematics and highlighted the importance of focusing on different domains of mathematics. Because a high variability in mathematical performance could be observed, we recommend an individual assessment when considering the mathematical trajectory of children with ASD. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

HIGHLY ANXIOUS PUPILS IN FORMAL AND INFORMAL PRIMARY CLASSROOMS; THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFERRED COPING STRATEGIES AND: I—COGNITIVE ATTAINMENT

Summary . This study was carried out in conjunction with the Teaching Styles project (Bennett, 1976). Questionnaire measures of ‘anxiety’ and ‘achievement motivation’, together with cognitive tests of English, mathematics and reading were administered to a sample of 956 primary school pupils in classes taught by teachers representing formal, informal and mixed teaching styles at the beginning and towards the end of the final year in primary school. Based on the premise that self-report measures of ‘anxiety’ and ‘achievement motivation’ may be indicative of coping strategies, zonal analyses of post-test data were carried out separately by sex and within teaching style. Results showed higher levels of attainment for highly anxious highly motivated pupils (an inferred coping strategy of approach) than for highly anxious low motivated pupils (an inferred coping strategy of avoidance). Further analyses indicated a close link between anxiety, motivation and ability for girls, a finding interpreted in terms of sex-related conformity, but for boys considerable discrepancies in attainment in relation to the inferred coping strategies were still in evidence at the lower ability level under all teaching styles. At the upper ability level significant discrepancies in attainment were shown only for boys in formal classrooms, where an inferred coping strategy of ‘approach’ was found to be associated with the highest level of attainment and an inferred coping strategy of ‘avoidance’ was associated with the lowest level of attainment. These findings are interpreted in terms of extrinsic motivational incentives, success and failure experience and possible parental influence. Further analysis indicated that ‘avoiders' tended to be introverted and ‘approachers' extraverted in personality. This finding is interpreted in the light of Gray's 1970 postulate that introverts are relatively more susceptible to punishment/non-reward, whereas extraverts are relatively more susceptible to reward.     

Cognitive style,working memory and learning behaviour and attainment in school subjects

Background: Both working memory capacity and cognitive style have independently been found to affect performance on school‐type tasks, but their effects in interaction have not been considered. Aims: The aims of this study were to consider the relationship between working memory, cognitive style and gender on (a) overall learning behaviour, and (b) performance on a range of school subjects. Sample: The sample comprised 206 13‐year‐old secondary comprehensive school Year 8 pupils, being all pupils in that year who completed the principal assessments. Method: The pupils did an assessment of working memory efficiency — the Information Processing Index (Riding, 2000a). They also completed the Cognitive Styles Analysis (Riding, 1991) to determine their positions on the two fundamental cognitive styles, which were indicated by two ratios: the Wholist‐Analytic ratio and the Verbal‐Imagery ratio. Overall learning behaviour was rated by the pupils' tutors. In addition, attainment in each of 10 subjects was rated by their subject teachers. Results: For overall learning behaviour, there was an interaction between working memory capacity and cognitive style. With the Wholist‐Analytic style dimension, memory made a marked difference for Analytics but had little effect for Wholists, and with the Verbal‐Imagery dimension Verbalisers were affected but not Imagers. With the school subjects, these differed in terms of their sensitivity to gender, memory and style. Conclusion: The results were discussed in terms of differences between the styles in terms of information‐processing demands. Practical ways of improving learning performance were also considered.     

The comprehension skills of children learning English as an additional language

Background Data from national test results suggests that children who are learning English as an additional language (EAL) experience relatively lower levels of educational attainment in comparison to their monolingual, English‐speaking peers. Aims The relative underachievement of children who are learning EAL demands that the literacy needs of this group are identified. To this end, this study aimed to explore the reading‐ and comprehension‐related skills of a group of EAL learners. Sample Data are reported from 92 Year 3 pupils, of whom 46 children are learning EAL. Method Children completed standardized measures of reading accuracy and comprehension, listening comprehension, and receptive and expressive vocabulary. Results Results indicate that many EAL learners experience difficulties in understanding written and spoken text. These comprehension difficulties are not related to decoding problems but are related to significantly lower levels of vocabulary knowledge experienced by this group. Conclusions Many EAL learners experience significantly lower levels of English vocabulary knowledge which has a significant impact on their ability to understand written and spoken text. Greater emphasis on language development is therefore needed in the school curriculum to attempt to address the limited language skills of children learning EAL.     

Precursors of language ability and academic performance: an inter‐generational,longitudinal study of at‐risk children

The current investigation examined whether inter‐generational transfer of risk could be revealed through mothers' and preschool‐aged children's expressive language, and whether continuity of risk persisted in these children's academic abilities, 3 years later. Participating families were drawn from the Concordia Longitudinal Risk Project, a prospective, longitudinal investigation of French‐speaking families from low‐SES Montreal neighbourhoods. At Time 1, mothers' history of childhood social withdrawal was shown to predict mothers' child‐directed language. Mothers' language complexity was also shown to be predictive of preschoolers' expressive language and was found to mediate the relationship between maternal social withdrawal and child language. At Time 2, children's language‐related academic abilities were predicted by their expressive language at preschool age. The findings support an inter‐generational continuity of risk operating through language complexity and extending to children's performance in language‐related academic abilities at school age. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.