The interaction between leader–member exchange and perceived job security in predicting employee altruism and work performance

This study investigated the relationships among leader–member exchange (LMX), perceived job security, and employee performance. Drawing on the job demands–resources model and conservation of resources theory, we expected both LMX and perceived job security would affect employee altruism and work performance in a positive manner. In addition, LMX and perceived job security were expected to interact to predict the two outcome variables. The hypotheses were tested with a sample of 184 employees in a state‐owned enterprise in China. Our results showed that LMX, but not perceived job security, was positively related to employee altruism and work performance. Additionally, the effect of LMX on altruism was stronger for employees perceiving less job security. The findings indicated that LMX as a job resource becomes more impactful to altruistic performance when employees feel less secure at work.     

Change‐oriented organizational citizenship behaviour: An interactive product of openness to change values,work unit identification,and sense of power

Due to the increased frequency of organizational changes, predicting employees’ voluntary involvement in the development of organizational practices and individual work is of particular importance in organizational psychology. This study focused upon change‐oriented organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) as an expression of openness to change values, and also upon psychological factors that can moderate the value–behaviour relationship. We propose that personal values, group identification, and a sense of power interact in predicting change‐oriented OCB of employees. One hundred and eighty‐four employees rated their values, their identification with the work unit and their sense of power. In line with our predictions, the results showed that openness to change values and work unit identification interacted positively in predicting supervisor‐rated change‐oriented OCB in workers with a high sense of power, but not in workers with a low sense of power. This finding suggests that workers who have a high sense of power and are highly identified with the work unit tend to pursue their openness to change values in a way that contributes to the organization. The authors further conclude that an interactive approach, rather than one of direct effect, is advantageous when studying values as antecedents to change‐oriented OCB.     

Organizational citizenship behaviours in relation to job status,job insecurity,organizational commitment and identification,job satisfaction and work values

This study investigated organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) in a sample of 154 school teachers from Victoria, Australia, of whom 101 were in permanent employment and 53 on fixed‐term contracts. Participants completed measures of OCBs, job insecurity, organizational commitment, organizational identification, job satisfaction and work values relating to influence, variety and skill utilization. Results showed that the contract teachers reported more job insecurity and more OCBs compared to the permanent teachers. OCBs were positively related to perceived job insecurity and negatively related to opportunities to satisfy influence and skillutilization work values for the contract teachers, and positively related to organizational commitment, organizational identification and to opportunities to satisfy variety and skill‐utilization work values for the permanent teachers. Results were discussed in relation to the different functions that OCBs were assumed to serve for both groups of teachers and the possibility of conceptualizing OCBs using a motivational analysis that takes account of expectations and goal structures.     

Perceived organizational support as a mediator between relational exchange and organizational identification

Using cross-level data from 364 supervisor–subordinate dyads, we examined how relational exchange quality, perceived organizational support (POS), and organizational identification interrelate. We found subordinate POS mediates the relationship between leader-member exchange (i.e., LMX) and organizational identification. We also found the relational context matters—namely, the immediate supervisor’s relationship with his or her manager (i.e., leader–leader exchange, LLX). Our findings suggest higher quality LLX creates a spillover of resources and reduces the negative association between lower quality LMX and POS. Our study extends both social exchange and social identity theories. First, we delineate how relational exchange quality associates with one’s identity in the organization—placing POS as an integrative mechanism between exchange and identity. Second, we expand the purview of social exchange theory by including other proximal (and interpersonal) relationships as context for social exchange between the individual and organization. Limitations, future research directions, and practical implications are also discussed.     

A single‐item graphic scale for the measurement of organizational identification

We offer a single‐item graphic scale for the measurement of identification with organizations and organizational units. The scale is based on conceiving of identification in terms of distance or overlap between entities in a cognitive space. We present results from five samples regarding the reliability and validity of the scale.     

Volunteer work as a valuable leisure‐time activity: A day‐level study on volunteer work,non‐work experiences,and well‐being at work

In this 2‐week diary study, with 105 employees providing data on a total of 476 days, we examined relationships between the amount of time spent on volunteer work activities during leisure time, psychological non‐work experiences in the evening (i.e. recovery experiences of psychological detachment from work and mastery as well as need satisfaction), and work outcomes during the following working day (i.e. positive and negative affect, and active listening). Results confirmed the hypothesized positive relationships between the amount of time spent on volunteer work activities and psychological detachment from work, mastery experiences, and need satisfaction in the evening. Psychological detachment from work in the evening was positively related to active listening during the following working day. Need satisfaction in the evening was negatively related to negative affect and positively related to active listening during the following working day. The amount of time spent on volunteer work activities was negatively related to negative affect during the following working day. This relationship was mediated by need satisfaction in the evening.     

The incremental validity of organizational commitment,organizational trust,and organizational identification

Organizational commitment (OC), organizational trust (OT), and organizational identification (OI) are three types of psychological attachment to an organization. Each of these three variables captures an organization-targeted attitude toward an employment relationship, but it is unclear whether they have incremental validity over each other. To address this question, this study examined the incremental validity of each variable in predicting job involvement, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and non-self-report measures of task performance and citizenship behavior. It also examined whether perceived organizational support and psychological contract breach, two other organization-targeted attitudinal variables, were related to OC, OT, and OI when the latter were considered jointly. Meta-analytical evidence suggests that OC, OT, and OI have incremental validity over and above one another in their relationships with some, but not all, of the above correlates. This highlights the need for future research to distinguish these three types of psychological attachment to an organization.     

The association between ethnic congruence in the supervisor‐subordinate dyad and subordinate organizational position and salary

We used a large field sample (N=32,854) to test popular press claims and propositions from relational demography theory that the ethnic congruence of the supervisor‐subordinate dyad is associated with positive employee outcomes. Results indicate that ethnic congruence was positively associated with subordinates' level in the organization and salary. These relationships were moderated by type of compensation system, such that the effects were stronger in merit‐based than in tenure‐based systems. In addition, the extent of the relationship between supervisor‐subordinate congruence differed by ethnic group, supporting previous research that suggests examining unique outcomes by ethnicity. However, although statistically significant, effect sizes were generally smaller than anticipated and implied in the popular press. Practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Personal vulnerability and work‐home interaction: The effect of job performance‐based self‐esteem on work/home conflict and facilitation

Innstrand, S. T., Langballe, E. M., Espnes, G. A., Aasland, O. G. & Falkum, E. (2010). Personal vulnerability and work‐home interaction: The effect of job performance‐based self‐esteem on work/home conflict and facilitation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 51, 480–487. The aim of the present study was to examine the longitudinal relationship between job performance‐based self‐esteem (JPB‐SE) and work‐home interaction (WHI) in terms of the direction of the interaction (work‐to‐home vs. home‐to‐work) and the effect (conflict vs. facilitation). A sample of 3,475 respondents from eight different occupational groups (lawyers, physicians, nurses, teachers, church ministers, bus drivers, and people working in advertising and information technology) supplied data at two points of time with a two‐year time interval. The two‐wave, cross‐lagged structural equations modeling (SEM) analysis demonstrated reciprocal relationships between these variables, i.e., job performance‐based self‐esteem may act as a precursor as well as an outcome of work‐home interaction. The strongest association was between job performance‐based self‐esteem and work‐to‐home conflict. Previous research on work‐home interaction has mainly focused on situational factors. This longitudinal study expands the work‐home literature by demonstrating how individual vulnerability (job performance‐based self‐esteem) contributes to the explanation of work‐home interactions.     

Interactive effects of work group and organizational identification on job satisfaction and extra-role behavior

Past research has focused on the differential relationships of organizational and work group identification with attitudes and behavior. However, no systematic effort has been undertaken yet to explore interactive effects between these foci of identification. We predicted that in cases of positive overlap of identifications (i.e. high work group and organizational identification) identifications are more strongly associated with employee job satisfaction and extra-role behavior than when only one of the identifications is high—that is, the one identification augments the influence of the other. These hypotheses were tested and supported with data from two samples of bank employees (N = 358) and travel agency employees (N = 308).     

Men and women at work: Similarities and differences in work values within occupational groupings

This paper presents national survey data regarding the work-related values of male and female labor force participants. Evidence is also presented concerning the relationship of family responsibilities to the work values of women. The empirical analysis derives in part from the recent work of Kaufman and Fetters (Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1980, 17, 251–262), the quality of work literature, and the literature on women and work. The hypotheses include expected work-value differences between men and women within occupational categories and the expected relationships between the presence of children in the home and the value attached to various aspects of work. Five job dimensions are considered: intrinsic, extrinsic, resource adequacy, convenience, and relations with co-workers. The only male-female value difference that appears to be enduring concerns the convenience aspects of work. Data indicate that the presence of children in the home, whether of preschool age, school age, or a combination of the two, tends to be negatively related to most work values of women. It is concluded that working women with children experience reduced work involvement.     

Neglected perspectives in work and organizational psychology

In this editorial we suggest that work and organizational psychology has tended to overlook the insights to be gained from ‘alternative’ perspectives such as interpretivism, critical theory and postmodernism, in favour of a focus on more normative and positivist studies of organizational life. While paradigmatic conformity is argued by some to have the benefit of providing a coherent knowledge base, we argue that it may also lead to an overly restrictive viewpoint and constrained practices. In any case, such a focus may be partly a default option rather than a conscious choice, fostered by assumptions of what constitutes ‘good’ research which may not be appropriate to (and even discriminate against) other perspectives. As a consequence, this special section aims to illustrate the insights to be gained from adopting such ‘alternative’ perspectives on topics of contemporary interest to work and organizational psychologists, such as retention of women in the workforce, collaborative (cross‐agency) work, advanced technological change and stress at work.     

Discriminant validity and interaction between perceived organizational support and perceptions of organizational politics: A temporal analysis

We used two‐wave panel data based on a sample of 137 employees from a small Korean manufacturing company to examine first the discriminant validity of, and then the interaction between perceived organizational support (POS) and perceptions of organizational politics (POP). We focused on the relationships between POS, POP, and three employee work‐related outcomes, affective organizational commitment, intention to stay, and individually oriented organizational citizenship behaviour (OCBI). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that POS and POP were distinct constructs. Moreover, time‐lagged LISREL estimates showed that POS and POP were differentially related to the three outcomes in a theoretically predictable way. POP did not moderate the relationship between POS and either affective commitment or intention to stay. POS, however, significantly moderated the POP–OCBI relationship. The implications of the results for POS and POP theory and research are discussed.     

Group decision process and incrementalism in organizational decision making

In two studies examining resource allocation, support is found for the notion that group decisions are affected in systematic ways depending on whether or not there was individual consideration of the problem before meeting as a group. Specifically, compared to no prior consideration groups, prior consideration groups (1) escalate their commitment more in progress (i.e., ongoing) decisions, and (2) are less willing to concentrate resources on a single project in adoption (i.e., resource utilization) decisions. The findings challenge the blanket assertion that promoting divergent views in a group decision context is always related to better decisions.     

Enrichment processes and gain spirals at work and at home: A 3‐year cross‐lagged panel study

In this study, we combined the Job Demands‐Resources model and Conservation of Resources theory with work‐family enrichment (WFE) literature, using the Resource–Gain–Development perspective in particular, in order to (1) investigate the motivating and wellness‐promoting role of job and home resources in predicting enrichment in work and family leading to further positive outcomes, and (2) examine positive gain spirals between the study variables over time. More specifically, we investigated whether job resources predict work engagement through WFE, and similarly, whether home resources predict marital satisfaction through FWE. We also investigated the reciprocal effects between job and home resources, enrichment in both directions, and well‐being in both domains. The study was based on a two‐wave, 3‐year, full panel design among Finnish dentists (N= 1,632). Results showed that job resources at T1 predicted WFE at T2, and WFE and engagement reciprocally influenced each other over time. Home resources at T1, on the other hand, did not predict family‐work enrichment (FEW) at T2; instead, FWE at T1 influenced both home resources and marital satisfaction at T2. Moreover, we found reciprocal impacts (‘gain spirals’) between domain‐specific resources (job/home resources) and domain‐specific well‐being (engagement/marital satisfaction) and between WFE and engagement, thus supporting the Conservation of Resources theory. The same results were found for both genders, suggesting that similar enrichment processes may take place among both women and men. Theoretically, this study suggests that adding the idea of positive feedback loops might benefit the models theorizing WFE.     

The effects of organizational frames and problem ambiguity on decision making

This paper investigates how organizational climate and information quantity influences choice of decision making strategies. A simulated company with an organizational climate was manipulated to be either supportive or non-supportive of participative decision making methods. Subjects then solved problems in which information available to make a decision was manipulated. Results indicated that climate has an effect on choice of decision making strategies independent of information quantity. A second study was then conducted to assess how the climate manipulation affected subjects' decision-making. Organizational climate information appears to affect decisions in a manner analogous to Tversky and Kahneman's (1981) decision framing model.The contribution of each author is equal for this paper. The order of authorship was determined by a coin flip. This research was supported by Ohio Board of Regents and University of Akron Faculty Research grants to the second author. Portions of this paper were presented at the 1989 Society of Industrial Organizational Psychology Meetings and the 1991 Association of Management Meetings.     

Post‐retirement work: The individual determinants of paid and volunteer work

This research investigates the prediction of post‐retirement work. Unlike prior research, we examined both paid and volunteer post‐retirement work, showing the similarities and differences in their prediction. Using multinomial logistic regression analysis, a framework based on image theory was tested, which included evaluations of pre‐retirement work, attitudes to retirement, behavioural style and demographics, and used to predict both intentions to work in retirement in a pre‐retiree sample (N = 987) and actual work in retirement in a sample of retirees (N = 725). Both volunteer and paid post‐retirement work were strongly related to people's evaluation of their pre‐retirement work and for pre‐retirees, a proactive style of behaviour was also predictive. However, gender, health and retirement satisfaction more related to volunteer work and education to paid work.     

A comparison of linear and nonlinear relations between organizational commitment and work outcomes

The authors compared linear and nonlinear relations between affective and continuance commitment and 3 commonly studied work outcomes (turnover cognitions, absenteeism, and job performance), observed in 3 separate research settings. Using a linear model, they replicated the common observation in the literature that affective commitment is more strongly related to work outcomes than continuance commitment. Introducing a higher order continuance commitment term into the same equations, however, they found that the linear model seriously understated the magnitude of continuance commitment's effect on all 3 criterion measures. These findings are consistent with recent developments that identify different motivational mindsets associated with affective and continuance commitment (J. P. Meyer, T. E. Becker, & C. Vandenberghe, 2004).     

The deviant citizen: Measuring potential positive relations between counterproductive work behaviour and organizational citizenship behaviour

Studies have shown a strong negative correlation between counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) and organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), and opposite correlations with hypothesized antecedents. Such observed correlations may have been erroneously caused by three measurement artefacts: items measuring absence of CWBs, rather than behaviours that exceed requirements or expectations in OCB scales; supervisory halo; and agreement rather than frequency response format. A new OCB scale, the OCB‐checklist (OCB‐C) was used that did not have these artefacts. Contrary to prior expectations from the literature, positive relations were found between CWB and OCB, and stressors and OCB. Theoretical explanations for positive CWB/OCB relations (demand‐elicited OCB, social loafing, work process problems, rater perceptions and attributions, and aggravated job stress processes) are discussed.     

A multi‐level perspective on the synergies between work and family

In this paper we lay the conceptual foundation for work‐family facilitation. Work‐family facilitation is a process representing the synergies between the domains of work and family. We formally define facilitation as the extent to which an individual's engagement in one social system, such as work or family, contributes to growth in another social system. We develop the process through which facilitation occurs, provide a model and case studies of this process, and delineate additional theoretical and empirical research necessary to understand work‐family facilitation so that it can be managed and cultivated within organizations.