Transformational and Transactional Leadership and Followers’ Achievement Goals

Purpose

Achievement goals, or the standards of competence employees pursue in their work, have far-reaching consequences for employee and organizational functioning. In the current research, we investigated whether employees’ achievement goals can be predicted from their supervisor’s leadership style.

Design/Methodology/Approach

A multilevel study was conducted in which followers of 120 organizational leaders completed measures of their leader’s transformational leadership (focusing on individual needs and abilities, on intellectual development, and on a common team mission), transactional leadership (focusing on monitoring and achievement-related rewards), and their own mastery goals (aimed at learning, developing, and mastering job-relevant skills), and performance goals (aimed at doing better than others).

Findings

Group-level transformational leadership predicted followers’ mastery goals, whereas group-level transactional leadership predicted followers’ performance goals. Within-group differences in transformational leadership also predicted mastery goals.

Implications

These findings suggest that leadership style plays an important role in the achievement goals followers adopt. Organizations may promote transactional leadership in contexts requiring that employees outperform others. In contrast, in contexts requiring learning and development, organizations may promote transformational leadership.

Originality/Value

This research is the first to examine the relationships between leadership styles and specific follower goals, and the first to highlight the role of leadership as a social variable involved in employees’ adoption of achievement goals.     

Ch-Ch-Ch-changes: How Action Phase Functional Leadership,Team Human Capital,and Interim vs. Permanent Leader Status Impact Post-transition Team Performance

This study addresses the following: (1) does a team leader change along with the quality of the team’s human capital affect post-change team performance?; (2) is functional leadership of the team’s human capital a driver of post-change team performance?; and (3) should interim vs. permanent leaders manage the team’s human capital differently? We analyzed archival data from Major League Baseball teams who had undergone an in-season manager change (N = 129). Team performance improved after a leader change, and the quality of the team’s strategic and non-strategic core human capital were positively related to post-change performance. New leaders who engaged in more active functional leadership of the strategic core human capital enhanced the positive effects of human capital quality. Additionally, active functional leadership enhanced the positive effects of strategic core human capital for interim replacement leaders, but not for permanent replacement leaders. This study extends theory and practice on the importance of functional team leadership and human capital following a leader transition. As such, our results provide actionable knowledge for organizations and managers who are part of leadership transitions. This empirical study leverages a unique sample to provide insights into the implications of team leader transitions. The results of this study shed light on the impact that leader transitions which involve “interim” and “permanent” replacements may have on post-transition team performance and how these different types of leaders should leverage the inherent human capital that exists within the team.     

Is it in your face?: Exploring the effects of sexual dimorphism on perception of leadership potential

Perceptions of a leader in a work environment is important from 2 perspectives: the leader themselves and more importantly the external observer. But what information does the observer use when making these judgments of leadership potential? Many studies on role congruity have demonstrated that gender stereotyping and perceived leadership ability is strongly tied to gender role incongruity. The role of facial appearance has been associated with leadership status and potential and becomes essentially relevant in military settings. Thus, the manner in which an individual’s face is perceived and evaluated may impact perceptions of his or her leadership ability and subsequent success. The present study seeks to extend research on how sex and gender characteristics of an individual’s face may possibly influence the perception of leadership abilities in a military service academy. Findings indicated that participants preferred individuals with gender congruent faces, which may reflect a preference for physical prowess and abilities.     

魅力型领导与军事团队绩效：军政双主官的交互效应及士气的中介

我军广泛实行分工负责军事和政治工作的平级双领导体制,两名主官的相互作用可能产生额外影响效果。本研究在“连”这一双领导军事团队中,构建了一个以士气为中介的交互效应模型,考察连长和指导员的魅力型领导对连队绩效的影响。对350名军校士兵学员进行问卷调查,结果显示：（1）连长和指导员的魅力型领导对连队绩效具有交互效应。（2）士气在连长、指导员的魅力型领导与连队绩效之间均具有中介效应。（3）连长、指导员的魅力型领导对连队绩效的交互效应受到士气的中介。（4）双主官的交互效应为补偿式：与低魅力型领导搭档时,高魅力型领导的积极效果凸显,但两位高魅力型领导的协同效应不显著。     

魅力型领导与军事团队绩效：军政双主官的交互效应及士气的中介

我军广泛实行分工负责军事和政治工作的平级双领导体制,两名主官的相互作用可能产生额外影响效果。本研究在“连”这一双领导军事团队中,构建了一个以士气为中介的交互效应模型,考察连长和指导员的魅力型领导对连队绩效的影响。对350名军校士兵学员进行问卷调查,结果显示：（1）连长和指导员的魅力型领导对连队绩效具有交互效应。（2）士气在连长、指导员的魅力型领导与连队绩效之间均具有中介效应。（3）连长、指导员的魅力型领导对连队绩效的交互效应受到士气的中介。（4）双主官的交互效应为补偿式：与低魅力型领导搭档时,高魅力型领导的积极效果凸显,但两位高魅力型领导的协同效应不显著。     

群体规模与领导行为对群体组织公民行为的影响

以37个工作群体中的501位员工为对象,探讨群体规模与领导行为对群体组织公民行为的影响。运用多层验证性因子分析技术对调查数据进行了检验,并在此基础上进行了最优尺度回归和偏最小二乘回归分析。结果表明,群体规模越大,群体组织公民行为的水平越低。领导的个人品德和团队维系行为对群体组织公民行为具有显著的正向影响作用,而领导的工作绩效行为对群体组织公民行为的影响作用不显著。     

Implicit Leadership Theories: Prototypes for New Leaders

Followers' implicit leadership theories for new group leaders, including their prototypes of new-leader behavior, consist of organized expectations. If met, these expectations may afford a leader greater influence. Subjects' prototypes for new leaders were assessed by subjecting an 87 x 87 co-occurrence matrix of leader behaviors, based on subjects' similarity classifications, to hierarchical cluster analysis. At the proposed basic level of hierarchy (Rosch, 1978) were 16 categories of expectations for leader behavior, including giving ideas to the group, being responsible, and accepting others, which formed four abstract superordinate categories: learning the group's goals, taking charge, being a nice person, and being nervous. The results are discussed with relation to (a) the synthesis of the universal-trait and situation-contingent-behavior approaches for predicting leadership effectiveness, (b) cross-situational and cross-cultural comparisons of leader categorizations, (c) expectations for established leaders, and (d) leader selection and training.     

Intolerable Cruelty: A Multilevel Examination of the Impact of Toxic Leadership on U.S. Military Units and Service Members

We examined the effects of toxic leadership on unit and employee outcomes. Based on Bandura’s social learning theory (1977), we predicted that toxic leadership would have a direct impact on unit civility and that unit civility would mediate the relationship between toxic leadership and job satisfaction and organizational commitment. We also predicted that within-unit variability in perceptions of toxic leadership, or toxic leadership congruence, would moderate these effects such that the relationship between toxic leadership and unit and employee outcomes would be stronger when unit members had similar perceptions of their leader’s engagement in toxic behavior. Results indicate that toxic leadership behavior is negatively related to unit civility and that unit civility mediates the relationship between toxic leadership and job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Contrary to expectations, toxic leadership congruence did not moderate any of the effects of toxic leadership behavior. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Followers’ satisfaction from working with group-prototypic leaders: Promotion focus as moderator

What is the effect of followers’ promotion focus on their satisfaction from working with a leader who is prototypic of their group? We propose that high (vs. low) promotion-focused followers will respond more positively to a group-prototypic leader as a way to advance the in-group (“promote us”), which would increase their satisfaction from working with that leader. Results from an organizational survey and a scenario experiment supported the predicted two-way interaction between promotion focus and leaders’ group prototypicality: the positive relation between leaders’ group prototypicality and followers’ satisfaction from working with their leader was significantly greater for high than low promotion-focused employees. No such interactive effect was found for employees’ level of prevention focus. We discuss how these findings extend social identity theory’s analysis of leadership.     

The Leader Ship Is Sinking: A Temporal Investigation of Narcissistic Leadership

Individuals higher in narcissism have leader emergent tendencies. The characteristics of their personality suggest, however, that their leadership qualities will decrease over time as a function of group acquaintance. We present data from two studies that provide the first empirical support for this theoretical position within a transformational leadership framework. In Study 1 (N = 112), we tested narcissistic leadership qualities in groups of unacquainted individuals over a 12‐week period. In Study 2 (N = 152), we adopted the same protocol with groups of acquainted individuals. In Study 1, narcissism was positively associated with peer‐rated leadership during initial group formation but not later. In Study 2, narcissism was not significantly associated with peer‐rated leadership during initial group formation and was negatively associated with peer‐rated leadership later. In Study 1, transformational leadership mediated the relationship between narcissism and leadership initially but not later on. In Study 2, transformational leadership failed to mediate the relationship between narcissism and leadership throughout the study. Despite enjoying a honeymoon period of leadership, the appeal and attractiveness of the narcissistic leader rapidly wane. This decline is explained in part by their changing transformational leadership qualities.     

Intergroup and Intragroup Aspects of Leadership in Social Dilemmas: A Relational Model of Cooperation

Two experiments investigated how leadership shapes individual contributions in small groups facing public goods dilemmas. We predicted that the influence of leaders would be determined by their ability to fulfill both instrumental needs (solve the free-rider problem) and relational needs (contribute to the identity) of group members. The relative importance of these two needs was expected to vary with the salience of group membership (social vs personal identity). This hypothesis was supported in two experiments. Experiment 1 revealed that leaders showing group commitment and fairness toward members were more effective at raising contributions when social identity was salient. Furthermore, Experiment 2 showed that highly committed leaders were more influential when social identity was salient, whereas leaders with intrinsic leadership skills were more influential when personal identity was salient. This suggests that the effectiveness of leader solutions to social dilemmas depends upon the fit between leader characteristics and member expectations.     

领导幽默风格对团队内部学习的影响

采用幽默风格量表（HSQ）、领导成员交换量表（LMX-16）和团队内部学习问卷,以325名事业单位员工为调查对象,研究了领导幽默风格和团队内部学习、领导成员交换的关系。结果发现：（1）亲和型领导幽默和自强型领导幽默正向影响团队内部学习,嘲讽型领导幽默和自贬型领导幽默负向影响团队内部学习。（2）亲和型领导幽默和嘲讽型领导幽默对团队内部学习的影响完全通过领导成员交换起作用,自强型领导幽默对团队内部学习的影响部分通过领导成员交换起作用。（3）自强型领导幽默与嘲讽型领导幽默通过领导成员交换对团队内部学习的影响都大于亲和型领导幽默;自强型领导幽默对团队内部学习的直接效应大于自贬型领导幽默。     

Revisiting the mediating role of leader–member exchange in transformational leadership: the differential impact model

Transformational leadership (TFL) has been proposed as an essential antecedent of leader–member exchange (LMX), which in turn affects outcomes in organizations. We extend this mediation hypothesis in two ways by proposing a differential impact model, which we test on three organizational outcomes: employee job satisfaction, employee organizational commitment, and leader effectiveness. First, we extend LMX’s mediational impact—which has previously only been tested for employee outcomes—to leader effectiveness. Second, we argue that this mediation will be stronger for outcomes that are more proximal rather than distal to dyadic relations between leader and followers (high proximity: job satisfaction; medium proximity: organizational commitment; low proximity: leader effectiveness). Meta-analytic structural equation modelling based on 132 studies revealed that LMX mediates TFL’s relationships with employee outcomes (more strongly for job satisfaction than for commitment), but not with leader effectiveness, whereas TFL showed a stronger direct link to leader effectiveness. The findings suggest that TLF and LMX contribute differentially to organizational outcomes depending on their proximity to dyadic relations between leaders and followers. The differential impact model uncovers leadership effectiveness processes, integrates influential leadership theories, and highlights the importance of distinguishing between different outcome measures and the processes facilitating them.     

“License to Fail”: Goal definition,leader group prototypicality,and perceptions of leadership effectiveness after leader failure

Leaders who fail to achieve group or organizational goals risk losing follower endorsement. We propose a model in which leader characteristics (leader group prototypicality—the leader’s representativeness of group identity) and goal definition (a maximal goal that ideally would be reached vs. a minimal goal that ought to be reached) interact to affect leadership perceptions after failure. Group prototypical (vs. non-prototypical) leaders are proposed to receive more trust in leadership and, therefore, to be evaluated as more effective by their followers after failing to achieve a maximal goal, but not after failing to achieve a minimal goal. This model was supported in a series of four studies including experimental, field, and scenario paradigms. In addition, we showed that this model holds only after failure and not after success, and more for followers who identify strongly (vs. weakly) with their group.     

领导者性别身份的评价差异：基于内隐领导理论的实证分析

本研究基于内隐领导理论,运用配对问卷法,探究领导者性别身份的三种评价差异：自我评价与下属评价的差异,男性领导与女性领导的下属评价差异,男性下属与女性下属的评价差异。结果显示,与领导者自评的性别身份相比,下属易高估领导者的男性化;且下属评价男性领导的男性化显著高于女性化,而评价女性领导时两者并不存在显著差异。此外,男性下属对领导男性化的评价高于女性下属的评价。     

Children’s Implicit Leadership Theories in Middle Childhood: Christian Children's Perceptions in the Cavite Province

This mixed methods study explored the implicit leadership theories (ILTs) of children from Christian elementary schools in the Philippines, in response to the lack of importance attached to leadership ideas and leadership developmental experiences that occur in childhood. Jesus was the most frequently cited leader by the children who also showed a preference for the male stereotype for leadership. Among the nominated leader’s roles, religious figures, parents, teachers, and politicians received consideration from the children. The themes on leader’s attributes were categorized into four factors: (a) socioemotional, (b) spiritual–moral, (c) cognitive, and (d) physical. Males, older children, and non-Catholic participants were more likely to choose male leaders. Girls, Catholics, and young children were more likely to nominate a female leader.     

变革型领导与交易型领导的权变分析

变革型领导与交易型领导是当前领导研究的热点。一般认为,变革型领导是比交易型领导更为有效的领导方式。然而从权变的观点出发,变革型领导与交易型领导的有效性还要受到情境因素、被领导者因素的影响。该文分析了替代领导、领导与下属的关系以及组织文化对变革型领导和交易型领导与领导效能关系的调节作用,并讨论了今后的领导行为研究中应该注意的问题。     

Deadly combinations: how leadership contexts undermine the activation and enactment of followers’ high core self-evaluations in performance

Employees with high core self-evaluations (CSE) generally perform well in their jobs. The enactment of CSE in performance occurs within contexts, and leadership is one form of context that influences the activation and expression of CSE. Drawing on theories of CSE and leader–member exchange (LMX), we characterized the leadership context as the interaction between leader CSE and LMX quality. Examination of 173 followers and their 31 leaders in a manufacturing organization showed a positive association between follower CSE and performance when the context comprised high leader CSE and high LMX. Conversely, leadership contexts comprising high leader CSE and low LMX, or low leader CSE and high LMX, resulted in a negative relationship between follower CSE and performance. We also show that low CSE followers have relatively high performance under some circumstances. Thus, we contribute to understanding how some leadership contexts undermine high CSE followers’ performance and promote low CSE followers’ performance.     

Leader emotion as a catalyst of effective leader communication of visions,value-laden messages,and goals

Despite the importance that effective leader communication of visions, value-laden messages, and goals seems to have in leadership, we know very little about which leader behavior is conducive to effective persuasive communication of desired end states. The current research highlights leader emotion as useful for leaders to make followers receptive to leaders’ communicated end state. Across four experiments we found that follower performance was highest when there was a match between leader emotion and end state in terms of implied regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention). Three of these experiments tested the proposed underlying mechanism of this pattern and found that leader enthusiasm (agitation) primed followers with promotion (prevention) focus, which in turn generated high follower performance when leaders communicated end states that sustained this focus, that is, when visions appealed to promotion (prevention); persuasive messages contained openness (conservatism) values; and when goals were defined as maximal (minimal) goals.     

领导正直的概念、测量及其展望

领导正直（leader integrity）作为一种道德品质,长期以来被认为是有效领导者的关键特征。近年来, 道德丑闻和管理者违法乱纪事件频频发生,引发了学术界对领导正直问题的关注。然而,学界对领导正直 的内涵、测量及其作用机制的研究尚处于起步阶段,关于领导正直的文献综述更是寥寥无几。本文从领导 正直的概念、测量、影响因素、作用机制和实施效果等方面,对国内外相关研究进行系统梳理和探讨。未 来研究应从领导正直的概念与维度的完善、影响因素的拓展和作用机制的深入识别等方面展开努力。