A generalization of the bush-mosteller model with some significance tests

A generalization of the Bush-Mosteller learning model is proposed in connection with two-alternative learning situations with continuous reinforcement. The problem is to test the hypothesis that reward and non-reward are equally effective in promoting learning. Statistically this reduces to testing a hypothesis about the value of a single parameter, while a set of other parameters remains unspecified. The test presented has the property of being asymptotically locally most powerful among all tests of the same size and asymptotically similar. The application of the test is illustrated.I would like to express my gratitude to Professors J. Neyman and E. L. Scott, Department of Statistics, University of California, for their constant assistance and encouragement throughout the research that led to this paper and during its preparation, and to Professor F. W. Irwin, Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, for his many helpful suggestions and comments.     

Studies in the learning function

The error function of the theoretical learning curve developed by Thurstone has been fitted to maze data from rats that have been subjected to cerebral cortical insult. There is a high degree of relationship between the number of errors necessary to complete learning as predicted from the curve and the experimental measure of learning, total-errors-minus-errors-first-trial. The procedure provides a method of analysis for individual learning records and it may be used to shorten the training period. The goodness of fit indicates that the underlying logic of the learning curve is plausible.A grant-in-aid from the National Research Council has made the present analysis possible. We are indebted to Professor L. L. Thurstone for aid and encouragement.     

Two-alternative learning situations with partial reinforcement

The comparative effects of reward and nonreward on learning are considered in connection with a two-alternative learning situation. Conditions are more general in nature than those discussed in an earlier article. In the statistical model proposed, the question of whether reward and nonreward are equivalent in their effects on learning reduces to testing a composite hypothesis on a multivariate probability distribution. An asymptotic test of this hypothesis is described, and its use is illustrated with data from psychological experiments.This paper was prepared with the partial support of the Office of Naval Research, and may be reproduced in whole or in part for any purpose of the United States government.I wish to express my gratitude to Professors J. Neyman and E. L. Scott of the University of California, Department of Statistics, for their constant assistance and encouragement throughout the research that led to this paper and during its preparation, and to Professor F. W. Irwin of the University of Pennsylvania Department of Psychology for his many helpful suggestions and comments.     

The effect of difficulty and chance success on item-test correlation and on test reliability

An equation is derived for predicting the effect of chance success, relative to item difficulty, on item-test correlation. The values predicted by this equation and by equations derived by Guilford and Carroll for predicting the effect of chance success on item difficulty and test reliability are compared with empirical values in an experiment which used identical test items in multiple-choice and answer-only form.Condensation of a dissertation presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree to the University of Chicago. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Professor Harold Gulliksen for his guidance as thesis advisor and to Professor L. L. Thurstone and Dr. D. W. Fiske of the University of Chicago who served as members of the thesis committee. The author is also indebted to Professor S. S. Wilks for review of the derivations and development of statistical tests used in the thesis, to Dr. L. R Tucker for technical advice, and to Dr. W. G. Mollenkopf for critical comments on the derivations and interpretations. The writer expresses appreciation to the Educational Testing Service for making available its technical facilities, and to the University of Chicago for the flexible administrative arrangement which made this thesis possible.     

Spiking Interest in Computational Modeling: A Unified Approach to Cognitive Neuroscience. Review of Computational Explorations in Cognitive Neuroscience: Understanding the Mind by Simulating the Brain, by O'Reilly, R. C., & Munakata, Y.

Randall C. O'Reilly is an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology and Institute of Cognitive Science at the University of Colorado at Boulder. In 1996, he received his Ph.D. in psychology from Carnegie Mellon University under the supervision of Professor James L. McClelland. From 1996 to 1997, Randall O'Reilly was awarded a McDonnell-Pew Cognitive Neuroscience Postdoctoral Fellowship to study at the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He has served on several National Institutes of Health grant peer review panels and is currently an associate editor of the journal Cognitive Science. Professor O'Reilly's primary research interests are concerned with understanding the biological basis of cognitive processes through a variety of methodologies including computational and formal models of the biological bases of cognition.Yuko Munakata is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Denver. In 1996, she received her Ph.D. in psychology from Carnegie Mellon University under the supervision of Professor James L. McClelland. Professor Munakata is a panel member of the NIH Biobehavioral and Behavioral Processes Study Section, a recent recipient of the Boyd R. McCandless Young Scientist Award (American Psychological Association), and Co-Editor (with M. Johnson and R. O. Gilmore) of the book Brain Development and Cognition: A Reader (2nd ed.). From 1996 to 1997, Yuko Munakata was awarded a McDonnell-Pew Cognitive Neuroscience Postdoctoral Fellowship to study at the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Professor Munakata's primary research interests are concerned with the development and evaluation of neural network models and other representational systems for the purposes of understanding human cognitive development.Richard M. Golden is associate professor of psychology, cognitive science, and electrical engineering at the University of Texas at Dallas. Professor Golden is currently a member of the editorial boards of the journals Neural Networks, Neural Processing Letters, and the Journal of Mathematical Psychology, which focus upon computational and mathematical analyses of neurally inspired mathematical models. He is also a member of the Governing Board of the Society for Text and Discourse and the author of the book Mathematical Methods for Neural Network Analysis and Design. Professor Golden's primary research interests are concerned with the development and evaluation of formal models of higher level cognitive processes through a variety of methodologies from fields such as dynamical systems theory, optimization theory, statistical pattern recognition, and computational cognitive neuroscience.     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book review in this Article: P. Christopher Earley and Miriam Erez. The Transplanted Executive. Leslie A. Perlow. Finding Time: How Corporations, Individuals, and Families Can Benefit from New Work Practices. Ithaca, NY: ILR Reviewed by Céleste M. Brotheridge, Ph.D. Student, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. Edward P. Lazear. Personnel Economics for Managers. Reviewed by Wayne F. Cascio, Professor of Management, Graduate School of Business, University of Colorado-Denver, Denver, CO. Dennis A. Davis. Threats Pending, Fuses Burning: Managing Workplace Violence. Reviewed by Lynne M. Andersson, Assistant Professor, Erivan K. Haub School of Business, Saint Joseph's University, Philadelphia, PA. David W. Bracken, Maxine A. Dalton, Robert A. Jako, Cynthia D. McCauley, and Victoria Pollman. Should 360-Degree Feedback be Used Only for Developmental Purposes? Reviewed by Anthony T. Dalessio, Senior Specialist, Bell Atlantic Corporation, New York, NY. Mats Alvesson and Yvonne Due Billing. Understanding Gender and Organizations. Reviewed by Gary W. Yunker, Professor of Management, Department of Management and Marketing, and Barbara D. Yunker, Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Resources, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, AL. P. Christopher Earley. Face, Harmony, and Social Structure: An Analysis of Organizational Behavior across Cultures. Reviewed by Jone L. Pearce, Professor, Graduate School of Management, University of California, Irvine, CA. Clair Brown, Yoshifumi Nakata, Michael Reich, and Lloyd Ull-man. Work and Pay in the United States and Japan. Reviewed by Edilberto F. Montemayor, Associate Professor, School of Labor and Industrial Relations, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. Hope Landrine and Elizabeth A. Klonoff. Discrimination Against Women: Prevalence, Consequences, Remedies. Reviewed by Mary R. Watson, Assistant Professor of Human Resources, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN. Adrian Furnham. The Psychology of Behavior at Work. Wayne F. Cascio. Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life, Profits (5th edition). Reviewed by Anthony F. Buono, Professor of Management, Bentley College, Waltham, MA. Robert B. Lawson and Zheng Shen. Organizational Psychology: Foundations and Applications. Reviewed by John R. Ogilvie, Associate Dean and Associate Professor of Management, Barney School of Business, University of Hartford, West Hartford, CT Deborah L. Whetzel and George R. Wheaton (Editors). Applied Measurement Methods in Industrial Psychology. Reviewed by Malcolm James Ree, Associate Professor, Our Lady of the Lake University, Center for Leadership Studies, San Antonio, TX. Robert D. Gatewood and Hubert S. Feild. Human Resource Selection (4th ed.). Reviewed by Kathie L. Pelletier, Graduate Student, and Janet L. Kottke, Professor and Director, Industrial-Organizational Psychology Graduate Program, California State University, San Bernardino, CA. Milton D. Hakel (Editor). Beyond Multiple Choice: Evaluating Alternatives to Traditional Testing for Selection. Reviewed by Paul E. Spector, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL. David T Lykken. A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector. Reviewed by Theodore L. Hayes, Senior Research Analyst, The Gallup Organization, Lincoln, NE. Jeffrey A. Berman. Competence-Based Employment Interviewing. Reviewed by David W. Denton, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, TN. Pierre Mornell. 45 Effective Ways for Hiring Smart: How to Predict Winners and Losers in the Incredibly Expensive People-Reading Game. Reviewed by Jay C. Thomas, Associate Professor, Pacific University, Portland, OR. Richard Beckhard. Agent of Change: My Life, My Practice. Albert A. Vicere and Robert M. Fulmer. Leadership by Design. Susan Albers Mohrman, Jay R. Galbraith, Edward E. Lawler III, and Associates. Tomorrow's Organization: Crafting Winning Capabilities in a Dynamic World. Reviewed by Victoria Buenger, Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Management, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Susan Albers Mohrman and Allan M. Mohrman, Jr. Designing and Leading Team-Based Organizations: A Workbook for Organizational Self-Design. Reviewed by Christopher A. Hall, University of Missouri, and Michael M. Beyerlein, University of North Texas. Bill Bamberger and Cathy N. Davidson. Closing: The Life and Death of an American Factory. Reviewed by Lynn Summers, Mediappraise Corporation, Raleigh, NC.     

Values and learning approaches of students at an international university

This study indicates that values are statistically significant precursors to approaches to learning in a cohort of predominantly Bulgarian, German and Romanian students studying at a German university where the language of instruction in all subject areas is English. Values have been measured with the Portrait Values Questionnaire (Schwartz et al. 2001), and approaches to learning have been assessed by the Study Process Questionnaire (Biggs, 1987). The relationships between values and approaches to learning have been estimated by canonical correlation analysis. Results of the analysis suggest that values can be linked to learning approaches in a situation where students have left their home countries to undertake tertiary studies in a new social, cultural and educational environment. Four distinct pairings between values and learning approaches emerge whereby: (a) self-aggrandisement is linked to the achievement learning variable, (b) conservatism relates to the surface learning variable, (c) self-directedness is linked to the deep learning variable and (d) benevolent change is related to the learning strategies variable. The analyses for this research were conducted while the second author was a visiting scholar at the Flinders University Institute of International Education in Adelaide, South Australia. The assistance of Professor John Keeves in the implementation and interpretation of additional statistical analyses is gratefully acknowledged.     

A note on mathematical models for learning

It is shown that a rational learning curve developed by Estes for paired associate learning is a special case of a more general function. The latter is the product of two functions and assumes that the discovery and fixation aspects of learning are independent. The indications are that the form of one of the functions has not been tested sharply by Estes in the paired associate learning setting.     

Probability matching

The class of symmetric path-independent models with experimenter-controlled events is considered in conjunction with two-choice probability learning experiments. Various refinements of the notion of probability matching are defined, and the incidence of these properties within this class is studied. It is shown that the linear models are the only models of this class that predict a certain phenomenon that we call stationary probability matching. It is also shown that models within this class that possess an additional property called marginal constancy predict approximate probability matching.This research grew out of questions posed by William K. Estes. We are also indebted to Professor Estes for his encouragement and assistance at all stages of this research. During the course of this research J. I. Y. received support from the U. S. Public Health Service (N. I. M. H.). M. F. N.'s present address is the University of Pennsylvania. J. I. Y.'s present address is the University of Minnesota.     

Application of the quartimax method of rotation to Thurstone's primary mental abilities study

This study compares a quartimax rotation of the centroid factor loadings for Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities Test Battery with factorings of the same correlation matrix by Thurstone (simple structure), Zimmerman (revised simple structure), Holzinger and Harman (bi-factor analysis), and Eysenck (group factor analysis). The quartimax results agree very closely with the solutions of Holzinger and Harman and of Eysenck, and reasonably well with the two simple structure analyses. The principal difference is the general factor provided by the quartimax solution. Reproduction of the factorial structure is sufficiently good to justify its use at least as the first stage of rotation. More extensive trial of the method will be needed with more varied data before it will be possible to decide whether quartimax factors meet psychological requirements sufficiently well without further rotation.We wish to thank Professor L. G. Henyey and the University of California Computer Center for making the IBM 701 electronic computer available for this study, and the National Science Foundation for its support of the work of the Computer Center. Professor H. F. Kaiser of the University of Illinois has made helpful criticisms of the paper, and Mr. Louis S. Davis of the University of California has assisted with preparation of the tables. The research was supported in part by the United States Air Force under Contract No. AF 33 (038)-25726 monitored by the Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center. Permission is granted for reproduction, translation, publication, use and disposal in whole and in part by or for the United States Government.A 701 program for calculation of the quartimax and varimax loadings, prepared by Professor H. F. Kaiser, is available in the library of computer programs held by the Computer Center at the University of California (Program No. 464). Mr. J. O. Neuhaus and Mr. K. W. Dickman have prepared a quartimax program for Illiac at the University of Illinois. This Illiac program will be usable on three other computers recently built or under construction: Mistic (Michigan State University), Silliac (University of Sydney), and the machine being constructed by Iowa State College.     

Irrational beliefs and the anxiety disorders

This study investigated the levels of irrationality reported by a clinical sample of anxiety disorder patients, including simple and social phobics, panic disorder patients, agoraphobics, and obssessive compulsive patients. The levels of irrationality were compared between these groups and a group of normal control subjects, using the Rational Behavior Inventory (RBI). Agoraphobic patients were significantly less rational than control subjects on six of the RBI's subfactors and the total score of the Inventory. Patients in all diagnostic categories except simple phobia were significantly different from control subjects on the projected misfortune subfactor, and patients in all categories except simple phobia and panic disorder were significantly different from controls on the total RBI score. There were only four instances where patients in anxiety disorder categories significantly differed from each other in levels of irrationality. The implications of these findings, methodological limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.Joseph A. Himle, ACSW is a Clinical Social Worker at the Anxiety Disorders Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan. David P. Himle, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor of Social Work at the University of Michigan. Bruce A. Thyer, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor of Social Work, University of Georgia and Faculty Fellow at the University Affiliated Program. He is also an Associate Clinical Professor at the Department of Psychiatry and Health Behavior, Medical College of Georgia.     

Repetition of a cognitive task promotes motor learning

Motor learning plays an important role in the acquisition of new motor skills. In this study, we investigated whether repetition of a cognitive task promoted motor learning. Fifty-one young adults were assigned to either the early, late, or control groups. All participants completed a mouse tracking task in which they manipulated a mouse to track a moving target on a screen. The cursor was rotated 165° in the counterclockwise direction from the actual mouse position, requiring participants to learn how to use a new tool. To determine the task performance, we calculated the distance between the cursor and target position. In addition, to assess the effects of a cognitive task on the progress of motor learning, curve fitting of the learning curves was performed for the total distance. Experiments were conducted as per the following schedule: learning day 1 (L1), learning day 2 (L2: the day after learning day 1), retention day 1 (R1: 2 weeks after learning day 1), and retention day 2 (R2: 4 weeks after learning day 1). Participants underwent mouse tracking for 20 min on L1 and L2 and for 3 min on R1 and R2. As a cognitive task, we adopted the N-back task. The early or late group performed the N-back task for 20 min before performing motor tracking task on L1 or L2, respectively. The control group did not perform the N-back task. Based on curve fitting analysis, it was observed that the rate of change for motor learning in the early group was higher than that in the control group. The retention of motor learning did not differ between all groups. Our results indicate that the repetition of a cognitive task enhanced in the early phase of motor learning of the mouse tracking task.     

A Structural Approach to the Understanding of Causes, Effects, and Judgment. Review of Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference, by Judea Pearl

Judea Pearl is Professor Emeritus of Computer Science and Statistics and Director of the Cognitive Systems Laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles. He has authored the books Heuristics (1984) and Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems (1988). He has also published close to 300 articles on automated reasoning, learning, and inference. In 1999, he was awarded the IJCAI Research Excellence Award in Artificial Intelligence fundamental work in heuristic search, reasoning under uncertainty, and causality.Susan F. Butler is a doctoral student at Tufts University. Her work is in modeling of judgment and decision making, stochastic processes, and the examination of choice behavior under uncertainty.     

A multivariate analysis of an experimental design involving a complete set of latin squares

A model for an experimental design involving a complete set of Latin squares for testing the homogeneity of treatment effects was constructed and analyzed by Gourlay. In his analysis, however, if one or both of the preliminaryF-tests are significant, the analysis cannot differentiate. He then suggests the use of a less desirable test which is biased and has fewer degrees of freedom, regardless of the number of replications (the d.f. cannot be increased by increasing the replications). Further, when heterogeneity of variance occurs, Gourlay's test procedures are in general invalid. The present paper reviews Gourlay's analysis and proposes a modified test procedure.My thanks are due to Drs. R. S. Hirsch, R. L. Erdmann, and R. M. Simons of IBM Corporation for many stimulating discussions, and to Professor D. Teichroew of Stanford University for permission to refer to his paper [6] and his assistance. I also wish to thank B. A. Snyder for correcting many linguistic mistakes.     

A Narrative Approach to Child and Family Therapy in Africa*

Professional family therapy in Africa is heavily influenced by theories and principles of Western family practice. Its practice structure and philosophies are however grounded on African family values and the principles and orientations of traditional African psychology. This paper presents a clinical report that illustrates adaptations we make to incorporate compatible aspects of narrative family practice in African and Western cultures. A summary of African family values and child psychology intended as a background perspective is provided. The paper is significant against the background of the current need for forging multiculturally relevant healing methods that fit well with the globalized nature of the contemporary world. Augustine Nwoye, PhD, is Associate Professor and Chairman, Department of Psychology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya (amnwoye@avu.org). Professor. Nwoye has developed an African paradigm for mental health and, in particular, for family and couple therapy. He also has experience in dealing with stress and multiple losses, especially surrounding HIV/AIDS within an African context. *An earlier version of the paper was presented to the members of staff and students of the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, England, UK, and the initial version was presented to the members of the Family Therapy Program of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada. I wish to thank Dr. Colleen McLaughlin (University of Cambridge) and Professor Karl Tomm (University of Calgary) for their invitation, assistance, time, attention, and suggestions.     

Utilizing ret for effective treatment of adult children of alcoholics

Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACOAs) are a recognized clinical population that includes approximately one of every eight Americans. Although there has been a great deal of interest in this population, studies indicate that only 5% of ACOAs receive effective treatment. The authors assert that Rational-Emotive Therapy can provide ACOAs the education, expression of suppressed feelings, and cognitive restructuring that research indicates is necessary for recovery. This paper discusses issues associated with ACOAs and methods of using RET with this population.Marjorie E. Ferstein, M.S., is an Advisor in the Judicial Program of the University of Georgia.Susan C. Whiston is an Assistant Professor at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas.     

An integrative process model of organizational commitment for working women and men

Previous organizational commitment models may not be complete since few combined more than one theory, none looked at gender differences, and nearly all ignored the impact of a feedback mechanisms on the overall process. A new model presented here shows a three-stage organizational commitment process. The first, or preorganizational, stage consists of personal characteristics. These are modified in stage two by job and other external characteristics, and in stage three all of these moderate the six independent variables that have major direct impact on organizational commitment. They are 1. need satisfaction, 2. work/job satisfaction, 3. job commitment, 4. work commitment, 5. role stress, and 6. personal/organizational goal congruence. Implications are discussed.Leonard H. Chusmir is an Associate Professor of Management at Florida International University. He received his Ph.D. in Management/Psychology from the University of Miami. He has written numerous articles for management, organizational behavior, and psychology journals, and presented papers at several academic conferences. He is the author of the bookMatching Individuals to Jobs: A Motivational Answer to Personnel and Guidance Professionals. AMACOM Books, 1985.     

On Becoming a Profession: The Growth of Marriage and Family Therapy in India*

The practice of couple and family therapy has a long history in India. This article tracks some of the people, places, and contexts associated with the growth of marriage and family therapy (MFT) as a profession in the Indian context. Two of the authors outline their own introduction to MFT and work within this field in different cities in India in the last two decades. Based on their professional experiences and a pilot study conducted in Chennai, the authors document the needs of providers in the areas of systems-based therapy training and the practice of MFT. The role of the Indian Association for Family Therapy (IAFT) and suggestions for the future growth of the field are also highlighted. Mudita Rastogi, PhD, Professor, Illinois School of Professional Psychology, Argosy University, 1000 Plaza Drive Schaumburg, IL 60173 (MuditaRastogi@hotmail.com). Rajeswari Natrajan, PhD, Assistant Professor, Alliant International University, 2500 Michelson Drive, Suite 250, Irvine, CA 92612-1548. Volker Thomas, PhD, Associate Professor, Purdue University, 1200 West State Street, Fowler Memorial House, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1269. *Portions of this paper are based on Rajeswari Natrajan’s dissertation at Purdue University. **Rastogi and Natrajan share first authorship for this paper.     

Associative learning and representation: Introduction

The papers published in this Special Issue are based upon presentations at a workshop on “Associative Learning and Representation”, which was sponsored by the Experimental Psychology Society and hosted by Emmanuel College, Cambridge. The workshop celebrated the contribution of Professor Nicholas Mackintosh to animal learning and conditioning in particular and experimental psychology in general in the year of his retirement from the Chair of Psychology at the University of Cambridge after 21 years in post. The date of the workshop, 9 July 2002, was particularly auspicious as it was the day of Professor Mackintosh's birth 67 years ago. Moreover, it is particularly fitting that this tribute is published in the Comparative and Physiological Psychology Section (B) of Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, which he founded in 1981 during his editorship of the Journal between 1977 and 1984.