Directory of Members of the Society for Projective Techniques as of March 1, 1962

This study investigated MMPI characteristics of adult female outpatients in a behavior therapy clinic (N = 110). Those reporting histories of childhood sexual or physical abuse or both differed from those who did not on global Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway &; McKinley, 1943) indices of psychopathology and on Scales F, K, L, 4, 7, and 8. Subjects reporting abuse also reported high rates of other early traumas: witnessing family violence, parental alcohol abuse, and parental divorce. Physical abuse history was the best predictor of adult maladjustment as assessed by the MMPI. Findings suggest the potential utility of the MMPI for assessing long-range trauma effects and highlight the importance of considering multiple early-risk factors for the development of psychological disturbance.     

The Role of Defense Mechanisms in Borderline and Antisocial Personalities

Fifty-eight adult male felons were given the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI), and the Draw-a-Person Test (DAP) to test the relative sensitivity of subtlety or obviousness of items to response Sets. The inmates were randomly assigned to three response set groups: a fake-aggressive group, a fake-nonaggressive group, and a standard-instruction control group. The MMPIs were scored for five obvious and five subtle aggression or hostility research scales. The BDHI is a totally obvious test, whereas the DAP is a very subtle measure. A paradoxical relationship between response set and subtlety of the scales was hypothesized, such that the obvious scales could be successfully faked, hut the subtle scales would show scores in the opposite from the intended direction. It was found that the inmates did correctly manipulate the obvious scales, but the subtle scales did not consistently show the hypothesized trend. Possible reasons for this are discussed, including the nature of the scales used and characteristics of the population.     

Correlations of MMPI Factor Scales With Measures of the Five Factor Model of Personality

Two recent item factor analyses of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) classified the resulting factors according to a conceptual scheme offered by Norman's (1963) five factor model. The present article empirically evaluates those classifications by correlating MMPI factor scales with self-report and peer rating measures of the five factor model in a sample of 153 adult men and women. Both sets of predictions were generally supported, although MMPI factors derived in a normal sample showed closer correspondences with the five normal personality dimensions. MMPI factor scales were also correlated with 18 scales measuring specific traits within the broader domains of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness. The nine Costa, Zonderman, McCrae, and Williams (1985) MMPI factor scales appear to give useful global assessments of four of the five factors; other instruments are needed to provide detailed information on more specific aspects of normal personality. The use of the five factor model in routine clinical assessment is discussed.     

Clinical Considerations in the Conjoint Use of the Rorschach and the MMPI

Contemporary clinical and research findings concerning the Rorschach and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) indicate that (a) objectivity and subjectivity are relative and not categorical dimensions of these two instruments; (b) apparent contradictions between Rorschach and MMPI results are generative and not invalidating; (c) within limits, false negative findings are not cause for concern in the clinical application of Rorschach and MMPI variables; and (d) differences between the Rorschach and the MMPI in how they are structured and what they measure demonstrate considerable advantage in using them in complementary fashion to support clinical inferences.     

Clinical considerations in the conjoint use of the Rorschach and the MMPI

Contemporary clinical and research findings concerning the Rorschach and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) indicate that (a) objectivity and subjectivity are relative and not categorical dimensions of these two instruments; (b) apparent contradictions between Rorschach and MMPI results are generative and not invalidating; (c) within limits, false negative findings are not cause for concern in the clinical application of Rorschach and MMPI variables; and (d) differences between the Rorschach and the MMPI in how they are structured and what they measure demonstrate considerable advantage in using them in complementary fashion to support clinical inferences.     

The Influence of Elevated F Scales on the Validity of Adolescent MMPI Profiles

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventories (MMPI) of adolescent outpatients were examined to determine whether characteristically elevated F scales indicated an exaggeration of psychopathology. A treatment condition designed to reduce the motivation to exaggerate psychopathology did not lower scores of the F and F-K indices when subjects were administered a second MMPI. Similarly, actuarial interpretations for the second protocols were not more frequently selected by therapists as more valid, regardless of treatment condition and elevation of the F and F-K indices on the first MMPI profile. Elevations of Scales F, Pd4, and Sc8 characterized the adolescent MMPI profiles.     

MMPI ratings of suicide risk.

Among past attempts to use MMPI data to predict suicidal behavior, there has been a lack of research on the ability of clinicians to identify MMPI profiles of suicidal persons. In this study, the MMPI profiles of 20 male psychiatric patients who committed suicide and the MMPI profiles of 20 male patients who did not attempt or commit suicide were presented to six clinical psychologists with expertise in MMPI interpretation. The clinicians were asked to classify each MMPI profile as coming from a patient who did or did not later commit suicide, and to rate eight variables thought to be relevant to the assessment of suicide risk. Data analysis revealed that the clinicians could not identify suicide and nonsuicide patients from their MMPI profiles. Furthermore, the ratings of the eight suicide variable did not differentiate suicide and nonsuicide patients.     

Correspondence between psychological reports based on the Mini-Mult and the MMPI.

In order to assess the utility of the Mini-Mult with a university counseling center clientele, MMPI answer sheets of 10 students at the University of Miami Counseling Center were scored for both the MMPI and the Mini-Mult. Four judges completed psychological reports (Q-item questionnaires) based on the profiles. Correlations between judges' responses to MMPI and Mini-Mult profiles were calculated as an indication of the correspondence between the two tests. In addition, correlations between judges' responses to repeated presentations of MMPI profiles were calculated as an indication of the judges' reliability over time. The results do not support the use of the Mini-Mult with a university counseling center clientele.     

Characteristics of the frequent nightmare sufferer.

Previous research has found that persons who experience frequent nightmares score highly on scales that measure psychotic symptomatology. Neurotic symptoms have also been implicated as correlates of nightmare frequency. In this study, 30 adult lifelong nightmare sufferers were compared with 30 control subjects, matched for age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Subjects were asked to record all dreams for 1 month and to complete the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). Nightmare subjects scored significantly higher on the EPQ Neuroticism scale and on 8 MMPI clinical scales than did the control group. These scales also best discriminated between the groups in a direct discriminant analysis. The results are interpreted as a reflection of global maladjustment rather than of specific psychotic symptomatology.     

The influence of elevated F scales on the validity of adolescent MMPI profiles

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventories (MMPI) of adolescent outpatients were examined to determine whether characteristically elevated F scales indicated an exaggeration of psychopathology. A treatment condition designed to reduce the motivation to exaggerate psychopathology did not lower scores of the F and F-K indices when subjects were administered a second MMPI. Similarly, actuarial interpretations for the second protocols were not more frequently selected by therapists as more valid, regardless of treatment condition and elevation of the F and F-K indices on the first MMPI profile. Elevations of Scales F, Pd/4, and Sc/8 characterized the adolescent MMPI profiles.     

The Consistency Between Scores of the Harris-Lingoes Subscales of the MMPI and MMPI-2

This study investigates the consistency between scores of the Harris-Lingoes subscales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the MMPI-2. College students (200 men and 200 women) were randomly assigned to either the original to original condition, where they took the MMPI twice, or the original to revised condition, where they took the MMPI and MMPI-2. Results indicate relative consistency in the item and normative changes between the Harris-Lingoes subscales of the MMPI and MMPI-2. These results suggest that the recommendation of a clinical significance score of T > 65 for the MMPI-2 scales should not be applied to the Harris-Lingoes subscales.     

Relations between the family environment scale (FES) and the MMPI

This study investigated the relations between FES scales and MMPI scales and the relation of social desirability and endorsement of FES items in a sample of 185 college students. FES scales were found generally not to be highly redundant with MMPI variables although MMPI Scale K (defensiveness) was significantly related to several FES scales. The social desirability and the endorsement rates of FES items were found to correlate approximately .80. Implications of these findings for the research and clinical use of the FES are discussed.     

A voice-operated method for administering the MMPI

Paper/pencil psychological tests such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) are difficult to complete independently by patients with limited hand function. This paper describes a voice recognition system developed to allow patients with no hand function to take the MMPI independently. Profiles generated by this system are not statistically different from those generated by standard MMPI booklet format. Limitations and possible extensions of the system as it currently exists are discussed.     

Racial bias in prediction with the MMPI for a juvenile delinquent population

Relationships between MMPI scales and criteria were evaluated to determine if the MMPI is racially biased with a juvenile delinquent population. The MMPI was administered to 333 white and 107 black male juvenile delinquents, and criterion data were collected. The regression equations developed for Blacks and whites resulted in similar accuracies. However, the weights of the regression equations tended to differ for the two races. How they differed depended on the criterion predicted by the equations. Consequently, it was impossible to state unconditionally that the use of the MMPI with Black delinquents will have an adverse impact. In fact, one interpretation of the results suggested that the MMPI may not be racially biased for predictions with juvenile delinquents because the amount of constant error in prediction for a racial group decreased toward zero as the apparent objectivity of the criteria increased.     

Utility of the Mini-Mult with parents of emotionally disturbed children.

In order to determine the potential usefulness of the Mini-Mult as a screening instrument with parents of emotionally disturbed children, two studies were conducted. In the first study 128 MMPI profiles were rescored for the Mini-Mult and comparisons with MMPI were made. In the second study 50 parents were administered both the MMPI and the Mini-Mult. Results of both studies indicate that the Mini-Mult is not a good screening instrument with parents of emotionally disturbed children.     

Predicting the performance of government security personnel with the IPI and MMPI

The Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI) and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) were administered to 307 newly hired government security personnel. After 9 to 12 months on the job, each was rated by their immediate supervisor on a 4-point scale of global performance (exceptional, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, or very unsatisfactory). Discriminant function analyses indicated that the IPI was superior to the MMPI in predicting later job performance, but the greatest prediction accuracy was found in discriminant functions based upon both tests together. However, the costs of falsely identifying candidates as poor risks and screening out those who would have been successful increased along with accuracy in predicting the true risks. It was concluded that organizations must ultimately decide upon the degree to which they are willing to sacrifice candidates who may have been successful in order to screen out those who are unsuitable. The implications of psychological screening for organizational selection policy are discussed.     

Predicting the Performance of Government Security Personnel With the IPI and MMPI

The Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI) and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) were administered to 307 newly hired government security personnel. After 9 to 12 months on the job, each was rated by their immediate supervisor on a 4-point scale of global performance (exceptional, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, or very unsatisfactory). Discriminant function analyses indicated that the IPI was superior to the MMPI in predicting later job performance, but the greatest prediction accuracy was found in discriminant functions based upon both tests together. However, the costs of falsely identifying candidates as poor risks and screening out those who would have been successful increased along with accuracy in predicting the true risks. It was concluded that organizations must ultimately decide upon the degree to which they are willing to sacrifice candidates who may have been successful in order to screen out those who are unsuitable. The implications of psychological screening for organizational selection policy are discussed.     

The Draw-A-Person Test: an indicator of children's cognitive and socioemotional adaptation?

The authors examined aspects of reliability and validity of the Goodenough-Harris Draw-A-Person Test (DAP; D. B. Harris, 1963). The participants were 115 seven- to nine-year-old students attending regular or special education schools. Three judges, with a modest degree of training similar to that found among practicing clinicians, rated the students' human figure drawings on developmental and personality variables. The authors found that counting details and determining developmental level in the DAP test could be carried out reliably by judges with limited experience. However, the reliability of judgments of children's social and emotional development and personality was insufficient. Older students and students attending regular schools received significantly higher scores than did younger students or students attending special education schools. The authors found that the success of the DAP test as an indicator of cognitive level, socioemotional development, and personality is limited when global judgments are used. The authors concluded that more specific, reliable, valid, and useful scoring systems are needed for the DAP test.     

Assessing Concrete and Abstract Thinking With the Draw-a-Person Technique

In this study, we examined the Draw-a-Person (DAP) technique as an indicator of concrete/literal and abstract thinking, Subjects (N = 50) included schizophrenic inpatients (n = 25) and college students (n = 25). Fourteen possible indicators of concrete/literal or abstract thinking on the DAP were generated based on theoretical considerations and prior research. Five indicators were eliminated because of their low interrater reliability. The Proverbs Test (Gotham, 1956) was used to establish evidence of concrete/literal and abstract thinking. Scores from the DAP and the Proverbs Test were correlated. Composite scores on the DAP were highly correlated (r = .52, p < .01) with the corresponding Proverbs Test score. In addition, abstract scores on the DAP were correlated (r = .54, p < .01) with a similar Proverbs Test score.. Concrete/literal DAP scores did not correlate significantly (r = .20, p > .05) with concrete/literal Proverb Test scores. Results indicate the potential for using the DAP technique to assess concrete/literal and abstract thinking when a nonverbal test is needed.     

Comparative Diagnostic Judgments from the Rorschach and the MMPI

Three experienced psychologists made diagnostic judgments from the Rorschach, the MMPI, and gave an overall diagnostic impression for 50 male and 48 female patients. Judgment on the first test viewed was given before looking at the second test. Order of viewing the tests and sex of patient were counterbalanced. The results indicated (a) the judges consistently rated the tests on a given individual as agreeing on diagnostic impression significantly more often than disagreeing; (b) interjudge agreement was low but significant for the MMPI and overall impressions, not significant for the Rorschach impressions; (c) in cases of disagreement, there was a highly significant tendency for the Rorschach to be seen as indicating more pathology than the MMPI.