Causes of racial and socioeconomic differences in cognitive tests

Correlations among profiles of means based upon 75 cognitive variables from Project TALENT are presented for groups defined by race, socioeconomic status, sex, area of the country, and grade in high school. Sex makes by far the largest contribution to differences in shape of profiles. Race and socioenconomic status, in turn, make much larger contributions to differences than grade and area. Sex differences in shapes of profiles are a function primarily of race and, to a lesser extent, of social class. Race differences are larger than socioeconomic differences and the former, in particular, are also a function of sex. Black males differ more from white patterns than black females. There is lack of substantial overlap in the causes of race and socioeconomic differences in shape of cognitive profiles.     

Sex differences in the patterning of adult roles as a determinant of sex differences in occupational achievement

A sample of 4,035 men and women from the Project TALENT high school class of 1963 cohort was examined to determine the extent to which sex differences in the patterning of adult roles contribute to observed sex differences in occupational achievement. Men and women were found to differ in the comparative timing, ordering, and continuity of educational, occupational, marital, and procreational roles in early adulthood. These differences in role patterns explained only a small portion of the observed sex differences in occupational attainment, as sex appeared to be a strong direct determinant of both role patterns and attainment. However, some aspects of the patterning of these roles appeared to have an independent influence on occupational attainment; in these instances, the patterns associated with lower earnings were more likely to have been followed by women. Further investigation of the impact of variations in the patterning of adult roles on women's (and men's) occupational achievement is recommended.This work was supported by Grant MH29509 from the National Institute of Mental Health.     

The sex by race interaction in cognitive measures

Data consisting of 79 cognitive measures from Project TALENT for 100,000 white and black high school students have been analyzed for possible race by sex interactions. Control variables included geographical area, grade in high school, and socio-economic class. Race by sex interactions are largest when socioeconomic class is controlled and are highly related to the size of the main effect of sex as well. White boys and girls differ more than black boys and girls whether the overall sex difference favors males or females. Sex by grade and, to a lesser extent, sex by area interactions were also moderately large and consistent with the size of the main effect of sex. Since there are no consistent relationships with other main effects, and since the measures producing sex differences also tend to produce the interactions, it is concluded that sex differences and the interactions with sex share the same causes. Differences between these results and those of Jensen are also discussed.     

Relations of socioeconomic status and sex variables to the complexity of worker functions in the occupational choices of elementary school children

The relationships of sex and socioeconomic status to complexity of worker functions in the occupational choices of elementary school children were studied. Complexity of worker functions was defined in terms of the most complex level of interaction required of a worker, when interacting with data, people, and things. The children included in the study were third- and fifth-grade students, divided on the basis of grade, sex, and socioeconomic status. The children's occupational choices were scored for complexity with the code numbers of the worker function hierarchies of the U.S. Employment Service's Dictionary of Occupational Titles (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1977, 4th ed.). Findings based on the obtained data indicated the following: (a) a positive relationship between socioeconomic status and complexity of data manipulation in occupational choices; and (b) greater complexity of interaction with things in the occupational choices of boys, than girls. The positive relationship between socioeconomic status and complexity of data manipulation was accounted for by the children's exposure to their parents' orientation toward data manipulation. Apparent differences in the play activities of boys and girls was used to explain differences between the sexes in the levels of complexity of interactions with inanimate objects and animals.     

Father identification,achievement, and occupational behavior of rural youth: 10-year follow-up

Males from rural economically deprived school districts, who had previously been surveyed as high school seniors, again 1 year after graduation, and again 5 years after graduation, were surveyed a fourth and final time 10 years after high school graduation concerning their occupational status and aspirations, their marital status, their spouses' educational and occupational achievements, the importance of life roles, and their occupational and personal satisfactions. In the original study the participants had been divided into two groups, low-identification males (LIM) and high-identification males (HIM) based on independent evaluators' judgments of the adequacy of their fathers as identification models. Each group's responses to the survey were compared. The results indicate that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups on the variables of optimism about the future, spouses' occupational achievements, role importance, occupational satisfaction, and personal satisfaction. There were statistically significant differences on the variables of occupational status, occupational aspirations, educational achievements, educational plans, marital status, and spouses' educational achievements. The results are discussed in the context of the three previous surveys. Over the 10-year period the occupational and educational achievements and aspirations have been significantly higher for the HIM group than for the LIM group. Equally consistent is the finding that over the 10-year period there has been no differences between the two groups in satisfaction with status.     

An investigation of racial differences on vocational variables among college women

This study used a sample of black and white college women matched on Duncan's (1961) socioeconomic indicator ratings to explore possible racial differences on vocationally relevant variables. There were no differences between the groups on age or educational level. The distribution of the parents' occupations by Holland type and the distribution of the subjects by their VPI type appeared to be quite similar. There were no significant differences based on: the relationship of the parents' occupational types to the subjects' VPIs: the relationship between the subjects' VPI types and their occupational choice or college major; the estimated likelihood of reaching the career goal; satisfaction with career choice or college major; and scores on two recent scales designed to measure vocational indecision. While no differences were found on the number of possible factors listed that might impede career goals, the distribution of the most important of these factors indicated there were differences between the two groups. These findings are discussed relative to their implications for interpreting previous research and carrying out future studies.     

A developmental model for the occupational socioeconomic status of American men

Prior research suggested that psychological, sociological and economic variables, measuring both differential and developmental dimensions, must be considered for an exhaustive analysis of adult vocational status. From the resulting estimated predictive model, occupational socioeconomic status was examined through 16 selected family, ecological, educational, ethnoreligious, and political predictor variables. The data were obtained from a national sample of 1355 American men. Factor analysis supported the hypothesized existence of an educational-socioeconomic factor and a political identification factor, plus a less discrete religiousity factor. Path analysis confirmed that a respondent's education, adult social class, and father's occupational socioeconomic status were principle predictors of the respondent's occupational socioeconomic status.     

Epidemiological investigation of mental disorders of children in Reykjavík, Iceland

Abstract.— A representative sample of 1100 children aged 5–15 years in Reykjavík was investigated with the WISC test, the Rorschach test, and an extensive semistructured interview with the mothers. The purpose of the investigation was to estimate the frequency of mental disorders in the population of children in Reykjavík, and their socioeconomic and educational correlates. The percentage of severely disordered children for the different mental health variables ranged from 11.8% to 30.8%. No significant differences were found as to age and sex. Most clearly associated with mental health were the parents' educational level, occupational status of father, the maternal attitudes of warmth and emotional involvment and the child's IQ and school achievement.     

Reference group perspectives and the vocational maturity of lower socioeconomic black youth

The reference group perspectives of 188 lower socioeconomic black high school seniors were found to be related to their career maturity. Students who evidenced an orientation toward middle-class reference group perspectives obtained higher vocational maturity scores than those who subscribed to reference perspectives traditionally associated with the lower class. Students' sex and family background were not related to their reference group perspectives or to their vocational maturity ratings. It was found that students' post-high school plans (either work- or college-bound) and their views of the opportunity structure of America were related to both their reference group perspectives orientation and their career maturity scores. Questions are raised concerning the relevance of the term career maturity for analyzing the career development of lower socioeconomic black youth.     

Occupational knowledge and career development in adolescence

In an effort to extend our knowledge of career development, two indices of career maturity were investigated in a sample of 6029 high school seniors sampled from 57 Texas public school districts. The study investigated both the degree to which late adolescents choose occupations whose educational requirements match their stated educational goals and the degree to which students' vocational interests are compatible with their occupational choices. The correlations between educational plans and educational requirements of the chosen occupations were .41 or less. Of the subjects who claimed to have at least considerable understanding of their first choice career, only about half planned to achieve the amount of education appropriate to enter that occupation. Subjects' perceptions of how well they understood their occupational choices were also negligibly related to the compatibility of their vocational interests and their career choices. Although educational understanding and interest compatibility both contribute to realism of occupational choices, the correlation between these two indices of career maturity accounted for less than 1% of the variance.     

Perceived influences on career choices of eleventh graders: Sex,SES, and ethnic group comparisons

The project Sex-Role Values and Career Decision Making was conducted to examine the responses of eleventh-grade high school students to sex-role-related values and to relate these responses to their educational and occupational aspirations. The concern of the present article is the influence of Sex, SES (socioeconomic status), and ethnicity on the reasons students give for their career choices. While students' responses were found to be generally similar across Sex, SES, and ethnic groups, the results indicated that females were significantly less likely than males to mention practical considerations, money, prestige, or status as elements in their career decisions, and more likely to mention helping others and personal achievement. The implications of these sex differences for sex equality in the career selection process are considered.The project reported on in this article was performed pursuant to a grant from the National Institute of Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare. The opinions expressed here do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the National Institute of Education, and no official endorsement by the National Institute of Education should be inferred.     

Age and sex differences in the development of children's occupational reasoning

The purpose of this study was an investigation of age and sex differences in the thinking processes that underlie children's occupational choices and their perception of adult roles. Subjects were 48 nursery school children (24 3-year-olds and 24 4-year-olds) and 48 third graders, all middle class, evenly divided by sex. Subjects were interviewed, using a modified form of Van Den Daele's Ego Ideal interview, on what they wanted to be when they grew up, their reasons for their choices, and their knowledge of means and ends regarding their choices. They were also asked what they would want to be if they were of the opposite sex. Tape-recorded responses were evaluated according to Van Den Daele's Ego Ideal levels. Analyses of variance indicated significant (p < .0001) changes of level with age. Sex differences were less pronounced and inconsistent. The range of occupations tended to increase with age, and both boys and girls expressed a broader range of choices for themselves than they did for the opposite sex. The study demonstrates that the process of vocational development is related to cognitive development; children's choices and reasoning reflect their changing modes of understanding the world.     

Sex differences in the determination of adolescent aspirations: A review of research

This article reviews research on sex differences in the educational and occupational orientations of adolescents. Because the aspirations and expectations of adolescents are predictive of subsequent adult attainment, these variables are important mediating factors in the process by which individuals of the two sexes come to occupy different educational and occupational positions in adulthood. Adolescent boys aspire to a higher level of education than girls, and the occupational choices of the two sexes are highly sex-stereotyped. Factors influencing levels of adolescent aspiration are reviewed, including socioeconomic background, academic ability, number of siblings, parental encouragement, mother's employment, academic performance, peer aspirations, dating, and participation in school activities. Although sex differences exist in the process by which both educational and occupational aspirations are formed, they are greater with respect to occupational than educational aspirations.     

Sex differences in attribution for occupational success

A study was conducted to both test and extend Deaux's (Sex: A perspective on the attribution process. In J. H. Harvey, W. J. Ickes, & R. F. Kidd, (Eds.), New directions in attribution research, Volume 1. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1976) expectancy model of sex-linked differences in attribution for success. Specifically, it was hypothesized that female occupational subjects would attribute success more to the unstable causes of effort and luck, as well as the stable internal cause of interpersonal skill, while male occupational subjects would make higher attributions to the stable causes of ability and task ease. This hypothesis was supported for the causes of effort, luck, and task ease. Additionally, a comparison between sex differences in attribution occurring within a nonpersonal vs. personal frame of reference showed three of the expected sex differences in attribution to be stronger in the latter condition. Moreover, it was shown that this difference was largely accounted for by changes in females' rather than males' attributions. A final hypothesis, namely, that males would perceive themselves as more successful in their occupations than females, was not confirmed.     

Generational differences in work values between parents and children and between boys and girls across grade levels 6, 9, 10, and 12

A cross-sectional comparison of school children in grades 6, 9, 10, and 12 and their parents was made to examine changes in work values and the relationship between children's and their parents' work values as a function of age and sex. Discriminant function analyses revealed support for hypothesized differences in children's values and for the convergence of sex differences in values at later ages. Results also confirmed that at earlier ages there is greater similarity in values between children and their like-sexed parent but older (grade 12) boys and girls are most similar to their fathers. These findings confirm and expand the results of earlier research.     

Father identification,achievement, and occupational behavior of rural youth: One year follow-up

Rural economically deprived adolescent males, who had been previously surveyed as high school seniors concerning their post-high school plans, were surveyed again 1 yr later concerning their present occupational status and feelings of personal satisfaction. The Ss had been divided in an earlier study into two groups, low identification males (LIM) and high identification males (HIM) based upon independent evaluators' judgments of the adequacy of their fathers as identification models. Each group's responses to the survey were compared. The results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences between the two groups on the variables of satisfaction, having received counseling from others and optimism about the future. There are statistically significant differences between the current occupational status and future occupational plans of the two groups.     

Academic achievement: An examination of Holland's congruency,consistency, and differentiation predictions

This investigation tested three predictions derived from Holland's (1973) theory of vocational development regarding academic achievement. Groups of 392 male and 424 female entering college freshmen were typed using the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory and were categorized in terms of congruency, consistency, and differentiation. Freshmen with congruent college major choices or with definite majors but indefinite Holland orientations enjoyed greater academic success than students who specified incongruent choices or no definite major choice. Students with personality codes of high or low consistency outperformed students with moderately consistent codes. Freshmen males with differentiated personal orientations achieved higher grade point averages than males having nondifferentiated personality profiles. For females, differentiation was not significant. In all sex comparisons female trends paralleled male trends and females generally outperformed males. Implications for vocational development and counseling were discussed in the context of Holland's theory.     

Eleven-year career stability and change as reflected in Project Talent data through the Flanagan,Holland, and Roe occupational classification systems

The vocational psychologist seeks classifications of occupations which maximize career stability as occupations change from time to time in the life. This study investigates the extent of career stability and the patterns of career change which have occurred in the lives of Project TALENT twelfth grade students in the 11 yr elapsing since they were tested. “Career” plans in the last year of high school and at 1, 5, and 11 yr after testing were classified by the Flanagan, Holland, and Roe occupational classification systems in order to study the career stability and patterning within each system and to contrast both among systems. Career stability proved to be about the same in all three classification systems but decreased in all cases as the interval over which it was measured increased. Career stability increased as subjects grew older, proving to be the greatest from 5 to 11 yr after high school. Patterns of change mildly conformed to the circular patterns claimed by Holland and Roe for their systems and the linear pattern hypothesized for the Flanagan system. Generally, the direction of “career” flow was away from intellectual careers to careers in business and sales but each system had unique results as well.     

The fit between Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory General Occupational Themes and Holland's hexagonal model

Using a multidimensional scaling procedure, the present study examined the fit of Holland's RIASEC hexagon model to the internal relationships among the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) General Occupational Theme scales. SCII intercorrelation matrices for both sexes as reported in the SCII Manual were submitted, separately for each sex, to TORSCA 9 nonmetric scaling analysis. The Wakefield and Doughtie procedure was used to compare obtained TORSCA coordinates with expectations from Holland's hexagonal model. As a comparison, identical analyses were performed on Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) scale intercorrelation matrices, these data having originally served as the basis for advancing the utility of the hexagon model. For females, the SCII-hexagon fit was not good, with a near reversal of the Social and Enterprising scales. For males, the SCII-hexagon fit was good. For either SCII or VPI scales, the female data met expectations from Holland's model less often than the male data. A replication study on SCII data for 305 female clients of a vocational assessment clinic confirmed the previously observed sex differences. Sex differences in the structure of vocational preferences are discussed.     

A reexamination of sex differences in job preferences

Previous research has found conflicting answers to the question of whether males and females share similar preferences for various job characteristics. It is difficult to determine if the different findings are due to the different populations sampled, the various methodologies employed, or to a real change in the phenomenon itself. This study essentially replicates earlier work by having 130 male and 84 female college students rate the importance of 10 job characteristics for both themselves and members of the opposite sex. Both sexes rated motivators as important, but females also placed importance on the hygienes. Males tended to underestimate the importance of the motivators for females, while females overestimated the importance of hygienes for males. The subject's sex could be predicted by both the importance for self and importance for opposite sex ratings, contrary to the earlier study. The difference in results and interpretation was shown to be due to the type of analyses used. Additionally, it was found that females' job preferences were related to their mothers' educational achievement.