After the deal: Talk, trust building and the implementation of negotiated agreements

The success of a negotiated agreement depends on implementation and implications for future exchange between the parties. This paper examines structural, affective and contractual factors that influence implementation behavior. Predictions derived from contract theory and recent negotiation theories were tested in two laboratory studies involving the negotiation of an employment contract. In Experiment 1 trust formation facilitated by so-called “cheap” talk and the provision of a sufficient contingent contract promoted vigorous contract implementation. Positive affect induced in the employer prior to negotiation had no discernable effect on subsequent implementation. In Experiment 2 induced employee positive affect did motivate implementation behavior but the effect hinged on the form of the contract. Small talk before contracting increased employee’s willingness to be financially vulnerable in subsequent exchange with the employer. Implications for general negotiation theory are considered.     

What is matched in direct matching? Intention attribution modulates motor priming

Converging evidence has shown that action observation and execution are tightly linked. The observation of an action directly activates an equivalent internal motor representation in the observer (direct matching). However, whether direct matching is primarily driven by basic perceptual features of the observed movement or is influenced by more abstract interpretative processes is an open question. A series of behavioral experiments tested whether direct matching, as measured by motor priming, can be modulated by inferred action goals and attributed intentions. Experiment 1 tested whether observing an unsuccessful attempt to execute an action is sufficient to produce a motor-priming effect. Experiment 2 tested alternative perceptual explanations for the observed findings. Experiment 3 investigated whether the attribution of intention modulates motor priming by comparing motor-priming effects during observation of intended and unintended movements. Experiment 4 tested whether participants' interpretation of the movement as triggered by an external source or the actor's intention modulates the motor-priming effect by a pure instructional manipulation. Our findings support a model in which direct matching can be top-down modulated by the observer's interpretation of the observed movement as intended or not.     

认知控制子成分与客观风险对信任行为的影响

信任是良好人际关系的基础,在维系社会稳定和谐中起着重要作用。然而,认知控制的子成分（抑制控制、认知灵活性和工作记忆刷新）与客观风险对信任行为的影响机制尚不明确。研究通过三个实验,在控制客观风险高低的同时,分别对刺激—反应一致性、任务转换和工作记忆负载进行操纵,进而考察抑制控制、认知灵活性、工作记忆刷新和客观风险对信任行为的影响。结果发现,抑制控制在反应时上表现出差异,刺激—反应一致条件下被试做出信任的反应时更快;认知灵活性和工作记忆刷新在信任率上表现出差异,不转换条件和低工作记忆负载条件下被试的信任率更高。结果表明,抑制控制主要影响反应组织过程,即为了解决反应冲突而需要更长时间做出反应;认知灵活性和工作记忆刷新则会影响个体的信任决策过程,决定了个体的信任行为表现。此外,研究中还发现客观风险高低表现出跨情景一致性,即三个实验中高风险条件下信任率均显著低于低风险条件,表明客观风险对信任行为的影响具有相对稳定性。研究探讨了认知控制三个子成分和客观风险高低对信任行为产生影响的加工机制,对现实生活中的信任行为有一定的指导意义。     

Affective state influences perception by affecting decision parameters underlying bias and sensitivity

Studies of the effect of affect on perception often show consistent directional effects of a person's affective state on perception. Unpleasant emotions have been associated with a "locally focused" style of stimulus evaluation, and positive emotions with a "globally focused" style. Typically, however, studies of affect and perception have not been conducted under the conditions of perceptual uncertainty and behavioral risk inherent to perceptual judgments outside the laboratory. We investigated the influence of perceivers' experienced affect (valence and arousal) on the utility of social threat perception by combining signal detection theory and behavioral economics. We compared 3 perceptual decision environments that systematically differed with respect to factors that underlie uncertainty and risk: the base rate of threat, the costs of incorrect identification threat, and the perceptual similarity of threats and nonthreats. We found that no single affective state yielded the best performance on the threat perception task across the 3 environments. Unpleasant valence promoted calibration of response bias to base rate and costs, high arousal promoted calibration of perceptual sensitivity to perceptual similarity, and low arousal was associated with an optimal adjustment of bias to sensitivity. However, the strength of these associations was conditional upon the difficulty of attaining optimal bias and high sensitivity, such that the effect of the perceiver's affective state on perception differed with the cause and/or level of uncertainty and risk.     

积极情绪对信任决策的影响研究

为了验证积极情绪对人际信任的影响其实更符合启发式依赖模型而非情绪（心境）一致性模型,通过三个实验,以控制信任线索和信任博弈等方式,对102名大学生被试开展实验研究.结果表明：（1）积极情绪不是简单地增加信任,其对信任决策的影响受到信任线索的调节：与中性情绪相比,当易得性图式和线索促进信任时,积极情绪的被试显示更多信任;当易得性图式和线索促进不信任时,积极情绪的被试表现更少的信任.（2）实验三证实积极情绪对人际信任的作用也受到交往环境的影响.正如启发式依赖模型预测,外群体不值得信任的先验图式,使得被诱发了积极情绪的被试较中性情绪被试更不信任外群体成员.     

Price fairness,satisfaction, and trust as antecedents of purchase intentions towards organic food

Health and environmental issues are increasingly important in consumers' decision‐making process. Accordingly, demand for organic food is rapidly growing. In this context, the objective of this study is to analyze the relationship between price fairness, satisfaction, trust, and purchase intentions towards organic food. With this aim, empirical data were collected with self‐administrated questionnaires from a convenience sample of consumers from Sakarya, Turkey. Proposed hypotheses were tested with structural equations modeling. The results indicated positive relationships between price fairness, satisfaction, trust, and purchase intentions. At the end of this study, theoretical contributions, managerial implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Contextual illusions reveal the limit of unconscious visual processing

The perception of even the most elementary features of the visual environment depends strongly on their spatial context. In the study reported here, we asked at what level of abstraction such effects require conscious processing of the context. We compared two visual illusions that alter subjective judgments of brightness: the simultaneous brightness contrast illusion, in which two circles of identical physical brightness appear different because of different surround luminance, and the Kanizsa triangle illusion, which occurs when the visual system extrapolates a surface without actual physical stimulation. We used a novel interocular masking technique that allowed us to selectively render only the context invisible. Simultaneous brightness contrast persisted even when the surround was masked from awareness. In contrast, participants did not experience illusory contours when the inducing context was masked. Our findings show that invisible context is resolvable by low-level processes involved in surface-brightness perception, but not by high-level processes that assign surface borders through perceptual completion.     

Attitude similarity and attraction: Validation,positive affect,and trust as sequential mediators

Effectance motivation—an urge for certainty and a feeling of being able to know, predict, and control one's environment—was initially proposed as the mechanism underlying attitude similarity effects on attraction. However, this motivation was discarded as an explanation when positive affect was identified. The presence of alternative mechanisms did not deny a role for the validation of attitudes in attraction. Therefore, we investigated the validation of one's views by those of peers as an additional mediator and its relation with two previously known mediators of positive affect and trust. As hypothesized, validation mediated attitude similarity effects when measured alone (Experiment 1) and within sequential mediation patterns involving positive affect (Experiment 2A) and trust (Experiments 2B and 2C).     

Communicating intent to develop shared situation awareness and engender trust in human-agent teams

This paper addresses issues related to integrating autonomy-enabled, intelligent agents into collaborative, human-machine teams. Interaction with intelligent machine agents capable of making independent, goal-directed decisions in human-machine teaming operations constitutes a major change from traditional human-machine interaction involving teleoperation. Communicating the machine agent’s intent to human counterparts becomes increasingly important as independent machine decisions become subject to human trust and mental models. The authors present findings from their research that suggest existing user display technologies, tailored with context-specific information and the human’s knowledge level of the machine agent’s decision process, can mitigate misperceptions of the appropriateness of agent behavioral responses. This is important because misperceptions on the part of human team members increases the likelihood of trust degradation and unnecessary interventions, ultimately leading to disuse of the agent. Examples of possible issues associated with communicating agent intent, as well as potential implications for trust calibration are provided.     

Seeing the world in black and white: the effects of perceptually induced mind-sets on judgment

Three experiments examined the notion that rudimentary perceptual experiences can serve as powerful guides to judgments under uncertainty. The results show that exposure to certain perceptual contrast patterns can influence the direction of bias without conscious awareness. In Experiment 1a, perception of alternating black and white squares, which served as orientation markers in a lexical decision task, resulted in a reduction of the well-known anchoring bias. Similar results were obtained when alternating high- and low-pitch tones were the orientation markers (Experiment 1b). Results of a final experiment provide evidence that perceptual contrast experiences can affect judgment-relevant representations across modalities.     

Contribution of perceptual fluency to recognition judgments.

Following a shallow (count vowels) or deep (read) study task, old and new words were tested for both fluency of perception and recognition memory. Subjects first identified a test word as it came gradually into view and then judged it as old or new. Old words were identified faster than new words, indicating implicit, perceptual memory for old words. Independently of this effect, words judged old were identified faster than words judged new, especially after shallow study. Eight experiments examined the possible causal relationship between perceptual fluency and recognition judgements. Experiments 1 to 4 showed that fast identifications per se do not promote old judgments. Accelerating the identification of test items by semantically priming them or making them come more quickly into view did not affect recognition judgments. Experiment 5 showed that the usual association of fast identifications with old judgments is not an artifact of item selection because the association disappeared when the identifications and judgements were segregated into different phases of the test task. Experiments 6 and 7 showed tha the likelihood of old judgments increases directly with the pretested perceptibility of test words, but only after shallow study. Experiment 8 showed that the dependency of recognition judgments on perceptual fluency continues to hold when the requirement to identify the words before judging them is eliminated. We conclude that fluency of perception contributes to recognition judgments, but only when the fluency is produced naturally (e.g., through perceptual memory) and explicit memory is minimal.     

Vocational choice: A decision making perspective

We propose a model of vocational choice that can be used for analyzing and guiding the decision processes underlying career and job choices. Our model is based on research in behavioral decision making (BDM), in particular the choice goals framework developed by Bettman, Luce, and Payne (1998). The basic model involves two major processes. First, the selection of a decision strategy according to four choice goals: maximizing decision accuracy, minimizing cognitive effort, minimizing negative emotion, and maximizing justifiability of the decision. Second, the construction of situation-specific preferences, which can reflect irrelevant task and context factors such as the evaluation mode. This basic model is extended to account for social influences and the long decision time typical of most career and job decisions. We review research on vocational choice in light of this model, discuss normative implications for counseling, and outline a research agenda for studying vocational choice from a behavioral decision making perspective.     

技术信任和领导信任对企业员工新技术接受的影响

在当今知识经济时代, 新技术的采用对于企业提高核心竞争力至关重要。如何使员工面对新技术带来的风险和不确定性, 信任并接受新技术是企业新技术推广的重要问题。现今学界虽已关注到信任在新技术采用这一过程中的积极作用, 但仍缺乏相关的理论和实证研究, 特别是对于其内在心理机制的解释。为弥补这一研究的不足, 本研究通过分析企业新技术推广情境下, 技术信任和领导信任对员工新技术接受的影响, 并引入了感知风险性与技术自我效能感作为中介变量, 探寻信任影响的内在机制。此外, 还进一步探讨企业文化的调节作用, 从而建构信任与企业员工新技术接受的理论模型, 为企业新技术的推广提出合理建议。     

When does grouping happen?

Recent research on perceptual grouping is described with particular emphasis on identifying the level(s) at which grouping factors operate. Contrary to the classical view of grouping as an early, two-dimensional, image-based process, recent experimental results show that it is strongly influenced by phenomena related to perceptual constancy, such as binocular depth perception, lightness constancy, amodal completion, and illusory contours. These findings imply that at least some grouping processes operate at the level of phenomenal perception rather than at the level of the retinal image. Preliminary evidence is reported showing that grouping can affect perceptual constancy, suggesting that grouping processes must also operate at an early, preconstancy level. If so, grouping may be a ubiquitous, ongoing aspect of visual organization that occurs for each level of representation rather than as a single stage that can be definitively localized relative to other perceptual processes.     

Elements of trust: Risk and perspective-taking

Trust is essential to personal well-being and economic success, but it cannot occur without accepting the possibility of betrayal. In the experimental trust game, game-theoretic rationality prescribes that trust decisions should depend on the potential risk (egocentric costs and benefits) and the probability of reciprocity (derived from the trustee's temptation to defect). The current work tests the relative weights of these elements. Experiment 1 shows that trust increases when costs decrease and benefits increase. The latter finding is critical because increasing the trustor's benefit also means increasing the trustee's temptation to defect. Hence, this finding suggests that egocentrism prevails over perspective-taking. Experiment 2 shows that the trustee's temptation to defect (negatively) affects trust, but only when the trustor's cost and benefit are favorable. Results are interpreted as reflecting a boundedly rational decision process.     

Exploring the effect of artificial intelligence intellect on consumer decision delegation: The role of trust,task objectivity,and anthropomorphism

This study examines the impact of AI intelligence levels on consumer decision delegation through three experimental studies. Study 1 manipulates AI intelligence levels (low vs. high) to establish the main effect. Study 2 explores the mediating role of trust and the moderating effect of task types (subjective vs. objective) on the relationship between AI intelligence and trust. Study 3 investigates the role of AI anthropomorphism in AI delegation. The findings reveal that increasing AI intelligence enhances consumer decision delegation for both subjective and objective consumption tasks, with trust serving as a mediating factor. However, objective tasks are more likely to be delegated to AI. Moreover, anthropomorphic appearance positively influences trust but does not moderate the relationship between intelligence and trust. This research expands the literature on AI decision delegation, shedding light on the psychological processes related to AI-powered product design, consumer perceptions, and consumption situations, while also offering practical implications.     

If you are able to control yourself, I will trust you: the role of perceived self-control in interpersonal trust

The present research tested the hypothesis that perception of others' self-control is an indicator of their trustworthiness. The authors investigated whether, in interactions between strangers as well as in established relationships, people detect another person's self-control, and whether this perception of self-control, in turn, affects trust. Results of 4 experiments supported these hypotheses. The first 2 experiments revealed that participants detected another person's trait of self-control. Experiments 3 and 4 revealed that participants also detected the temporary depletion of another person's self-control. Confirming the authors' predictions, perceived trait and state self-control, in turn, influenced people's judgment of the other person's trustworthiness. In line with previous research, these findings support the positive value of self-control for relationships and highlight the role of perceived self-control for the development of a fundamental relationship factor: trust.     

The effects of attention on perceptual implicit memory

Reports on the effects of dividing attention at study on subsequent perceptual priming suggest that perceptual priming is generally unaffected by attentional manipulations as long as word identity is processed. We tested this hypothesis in three experiments by using the implicit word fragment completion and word stem completion tasks. Division of attention was instantiated with the Stroop task in order to ensure the processing of word identity even when the participant's attention was directed to a stimulus attribute other than the word itself. Under these conditions, we found that even though perceptual priming was significant, it was significantly reduced in magnitude. A stem cued recall test in Experiment 2 confirmed a more deleterious effect of divided attention on explicit memory. Taken together, our findings delineate the relative contributions of perceptual analysis and attentional processes in mediating perceptual priming on two ubiquitously used tasks of word fragment completion and word stem completion.     

Intact visual discrimination of complex and feature-ambiguous stimuli in the absence of perirhinal cortex

The perirhinal cortex is known to be important for memory, but there has recently been interest in the possibility that it might also be involved in visual perceptual functions. In four experiments, we assessed visual discrimination ability and visual discrimination learning in severely amnesic patients with large medial temporal lobe lesions that included complete lesions of perirhinal cortex. Experiment 1 tested complex visual object perception. Experiments 2a and 2b tested in two different ways the ability to discriminate between feature-ambiguous images, which was reported to be impaired in monkeys with perirhinal lesions. Experiment 3 involved images that were successfully discriminated in Experiment 2a and asked patients to learn across 20 trials which of the images had been designated as "correct." Patients performed as well as controls in Experiments 1, 2a, and 2b, but one of the patients had difficulty in Experiment 3 when the task required remembering from trial to trial which image was "correct." These findings indicate that perirhinal cortex is not needed for visual perception across a wide range of visual perceptual tasks.     

Number of solutions effects in stem decision: support for the distinction between identification and production processes in priming

Three experiments explored the distinction between identification and production processes (e.g., Gabrieli et al., 1999). A stem decision test was introduced, in which participants were asked to state whether there were any English words that began with the presented three-letter stems. In Experiment 1, stem decision priming was robust for single-solution stems, but much reduced for many-solution stems. In Experiment 2, the solutions effect in stem decision was replicated in a within-subjects design, as was the contrast between the presence of priming in a many-solution stem completion test and the absence of priming in a many-solution stem decision test. In Experiment 3, for each critical many-solution stem in the stem decision test, participants studied three words that began with those three letters. Again, priming was not observed. These results were consistent with the notions that (a) many-solution stem completion relies on production processes, (b) the stem decision test eliminates production processes, and (c) single-solution priming relies on identification processes, regardless of whether the test is stem completion or stem decision.