Malleability of weight-biased attitudes and beliefs: A meta-analysis of weight bias reduction interventions

Weight bias exists across many important life domains, necessitating interventions designed to reduce weight-biased attitudes and beliefs. Though the effectiveness of weight bias interventions has been questioned, to our knowledge no meta-analysis of these interventions has been conducted. This meta-analysis evaluated the impact of weight bias interventions on weight-biased attitudes and beliefs and explored potential moderators. Interventions were eligible if they used an adult sample and a validated measure of weight-biased attitudes, which resulted in the inclusion of 30 studies represented in 29 articles. A random effects approach using inverse weights resulted in a mean effect size estimate of g = −0.33 (lower scores indicate less weight bias) for both attitudes and beliefs. Intervention type, publication type, and population type were not significant moderators but demonstrated noteworthy trends. Results reveal a small, positive effect of weight bias interventions on weight-biased attitudes and beliefs and provide useful information for future interventions.     

Efficacy of physical activity interventions on psychological outcomes in refugee,asylum seeker and migrant populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis

ObjectivesThe role of physical activity (PA) in the promotion of mental wellbeing and prevention of psychological disorders in population groups at increased risk for mental health conditions, such as migrant populations, has never been systematically investigated.MethodsWe conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) statement. We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Pubmed, Web of Science, SportDiscus. We included randomized (RCTs), controlled clinical trials (CCT), and pre-post intervention studies, that assessed the efficacy of PA interventions in migrants, compared with any types of controls.ResultsWe included 27 studies (4166 participants) (16 RCTs; 2 CCTs; 9 pre-post design) between 1997 and 2020. Meta-analysis showed a significant beneficial effect of PA over control conditions for general functioning (SMD -0.35, 95% CI -0.83 to −0.16; 400 participants), outcome expectancies (SMD -0.78, 95% CI -1.17 to −0.40; 118 participants), self-efficacy/coping (SMD -0.28, 95% CI -0.52 to −0.03; 269 participants), and psychological symptoms (SMD -0.48, 95% CI -0.88 to −0.08; 6 RCTs; 597 participants). Similar findings were produced by pre-post intervention studies (SMD -0.35, 95% CI -0.60 to −0.10; 7 studies; 302 participants).ConclusionsMigrant populations may benefit from PA interventions to improve psychological outcomes. Uncertainty remains about the best approach to promote PA in this population, and future research should consider the complex factors that characterize the migration experience.     

Self-determination theory based instructional interventions and motivational regulations in organized physical activity: A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis

This study aimed to provide a quantitative synthesis of the effect of Self-determination theory (SDT) based instructional interventions on the motivational regulations of participants in organized physical activity. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on experimental studies conducted before December 2021. The search using the online databases PsychINFO, PsychARTICLES, ERIC, SportDISCUS, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, and Google Scholar and other supplementary search strategies yielded 7774 articles, with 38 articles (142 effects and 12,457 participants) meeting the inclusion criteria. The articles were analyzed using a meta-analytic multivariate model. The study showed that SDT-based instruction had a positive heterogeneous small effect on intrinsic motivation (g = 0.29; CI 95% [0.17, 0.41]) and identified regulation (g = 0.23; CI 95% [0.10, 0.35]) and a negative heterogeneous, small effect on external regulation (g = −0.16; CI 95% [-0.31, −0.00]) and amotivation (g = −0.14; CI 95% [-0.28, −0.01]). SDT-based instruction did not have an effect on integrated regulation (g = 0.08; CI 95% [-0.11, 0.28]) nor introjected regulation (g = 0.03; CI 95% [-0.7, 0.13]). Univariate categorical moderator analyses highlighted multiple variables that impacted the size of the effects on the outcomes, including type of intervention and control group, length of study, age of participants, and study quality. Findings from the moderator analyses challenge the practical implications of SDT-based instructional interventions in improving motivation in organized physical activity. High-quality experimental trials using careful and precise conceptualizations of need-supportive behaviors and strategies would benefit the discipline.     

Personality and physical activity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Whether personality determines physical activity or its outcomes is relevant for theory and public health but has been understudied. We estimated the population correlations between Big-Five personality factors and physical activity and examined whether they varied according to sample characteristics and study features. Database searches were conducted according to PRISMA guidelines, for articles published in the English language prior to November 1st, 2013. Sixty-four studies including a total of 88,400 participants yielded effects (k) for Extraversion (88), Neuroticism (82), Conscientiousness (69), Openness (51) and Agreeableness (52). Significant mean r was found for Extraversion (r = .1076), Neuroticism (r = −.0710), Conscientiousness (r = .1037) and Openness (r = .0344), but not Agreeableness (r = .0020). Effects were moderately heterogeneous (I² range = 44–65%) and varied by sample characteristics (e.g., age, gender, or clinical status) and/or study features (e.g., measure quality or item format). This analysis expands results of previous reviews and provides new support for a relationship between physical activity and Openness. Future studies should use better measures of physical activity and prospective designs, adjust for statistical artifacts, and consider advances in the conceptualization of personality.     

A systematic review of the intrapersonal correlates of motivational climate perceptions in sport and physical activity

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to systematically review and appraise the achievement goal literature (1990–2014) with a view to identifying the intra-individual correlates of motivational climate perceptions, and to identify research gaps and avenues in need for further development.DesignSystematic review.MethodFour databases were searched, leading to 104 published studies being sampled (121 independent samples) that met inclusion criteria. Correlates were grouped into 17 categories and qualitative analysis focussed on identifying the associations predicted by achievement goal theory. Effect sizes were calculated using the Hunter-Schmidt method for correcting sampling error.ResultsA total population size of 34,156 (χ = 316.3, σ = 268.1) was sampled in the analysis, with the published mean ages ranging from 10.0 to 38.2 years (χ = 16.5 years, σ = 4.7). Perceptions of a task or mastery climate were consistently associated with a range of adaptive motivational outcomes including perceived competence, self-esteem, objective performance, intrinsic forms of motivational regulation, affective states, practice and competitive strategies and moral attitudes, and the experience of flow. Perceptions of an ego or performance climate were positively associated with extrinsic regulation and amotivation, negative affect, maladaptive strategy use, antisocial moral attitudes and perfectionism, but negatively associated to positive affect and feelings of autonomy and relatedness.ConclusionsAfter reviewing the sum total of research in this topic area, the authors appraise the options for future research to make meaningful progress in developing understanding of the social determination of motivation in sport and physical activity settings.     

A dancer's well-being: The influence of the social psychological climate during adolescence

ObjectivesResearch suggests promoting task-involving dance climates is beneficial to well-being (Quested & Duda, 2009, 2010). Likewise, caring climates are integral to optimizing well-being (Fry et al., 2012). However, perceptions of a caring climate have not been examined in dance studios and little is known about the relationship between perceptions of a broader climate and aspects of psychological well-being. This study examined the relationship between perceptions of the social psychological climate (task-involving, ego-involving, and caring) and aspects of psychological well-being (positive and negative affect, body-esteem, and teacher and peer friendship quality) in adolescent dancers.DesignCross-sectional correlational design.MethodEighty-three female dancers (M age = 16.28 ± .93) self-reported well-being and perceptions of their studio's dance climate.ResultsPerceptions of task-involving and caring climates were related to better positive affect, body-esteem, and relationships with teachers and peers (r range: .33–.68). Two climate cluster profiles emerged: a Positive Climate (n = 57) with lower ego-involving and greater task-involving and caring climate perceptions and a Mixed Climate (n = 26) with higher ego-involving and lesser task-involving and caring climate perceptions. MANOVA revealed significant differences (V = 0.266, F (6, 76) = 4.59, p < .001) between the profiles on well-being. Discriminant function analysis showed dancers in the Positive Climate cluster reported greater body esteem, more friends, and less negative affect than dancers in the Mixed Climate cluster.ConclusionsPromoting a task-involving and caring climate and de-emphasizing an ego-involving climate is an effective strategy for promoting well-being in dancers.     

Effects of psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in sport: A meta-analysis

ObjectivesThis study reviewed the effects of psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in sport.DesignMeta-analysis and systematic review.MethodPsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, ProQuest, and Sage databases were searched for experimental studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Risk of bias was assessed using the 12 criteria Cochrane Review Book Group tool. Hedge's g and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated and pooled using a random effects model employing the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman (HKSJ) method.ResultsThe search strategy identified 37 studies which fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis was conducted on 34 studies after removal of outliers. The results showed an overall small to medium-sized effect for psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in athletes (g = −0.42; 95% CI, −0.58 to −0.25). Subsequent subgroup analyses showed that this finding was robust regardless of experimental design, anxiety measure, anxiety type, gender, country, sport, intervention component, intervention delivery method, and intervention duration. The results indicated that the effects might be greater for athletes of higher levels of competition as compared to those from lower levels of competition. Separate meta-analyses also suggested that there were medium to large-sized effects for cognitive anxiety (g = −0.54) and self-confidence (g = 0.55) intensity, and a small to medium-sized effect for somatic anxiety (g = −0.36) intensity.ConclusionThe findings from this review study provide a robust evidence base for the use of psychological interventions to help reduce competitive anxiety in athletes. Future studies need to investigate how psychological interventions might affect the directional interpretation of anxiety symptoms.     

The effectiveness of school-based anger interventions and programs: A meta-analysis

Twenty peer-reviewed journal articles that described outcomes of interventions that took place in school settings and either focused on anger or included anger as a dependent variable were meta-analyzed. No differences in outcomes were found for group comparisons by school setting, special education status, entrance criteria, or treatment agents. Although 60% of articles discussed its importance, only two articles actually measured treatment integrity. Across outcomes, the weighted mean effect size of the interventions post treatment was determined to be .31. The largest effects were found for anger and externalizing behaviors, internalizing, and social skills, with mean effect sizes of .54, .43, and .34 respectively. Weighted mean effect sizes for follow-up studies were also calculated, but given the small number of studies that reported follow-up effects, those must be interpreted with caution. The results of this meta-analysis are discussed as they relate to research, practice, and intervention with children.     

Effects of behaviour change interventions on physical activity in people with spinal cord injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis

ObjectivesThis review investigated the effectiveness of behaviour-change interventions to improve physical activity (PA) participation in individuals with a spinal cord injury. Additionally, the review sought to analyse the change in PA behaviour that might be expected by utilising behaviour change in PA interventions and what specific intervention characteristics, application of behaviour change theories, and behaviour change techniques are most efficacious.MethodsThe protocol was prospectively registered on PROSPERO: CRD42021252744, and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines were followed in this review. Eight databases were comprehensively searched using a well-defined strategy developed in collaboration with an academic liaison librarian. Randomised, non-randomised controlled, and non-controlled studies were included in this review; however, controlled and non-controlled studies were analysed separately. Studies were included if participants were older than 16 years and had an SCI of any cause, level or severity, regardless of the time since injury. The behaviour change technique taxonomy version 1 was used to code the intervention characteristics for behaviour modification. The combined effects across studies were pooled in a meta-analysis, and the risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 tool.ResultsThe search retrieved 10,155 titles and abstracts. After duplicate removal and screening against the eligibility criteria, 23 studies were included. The overall effect estimate of the change in PA participation in the controlled trials post-intervention was medium (d = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.31–0.70) in favour of behaviour-targeted interventions. The mean difference in PA volume between pre- and post-intervention was an increase of 22 minutes per week (95% CI = 5.96–38.90). Interventions that provided practical support (d = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.46–1.16), which were individualised (d = 0.62, 95% CI = 0.34–0.90) and that utilised monitoring (d = 0.59, 95% CI = 0.34–0.83) had a greater effect on change to PA than those that were group-based and did not utilise those specific techniques.ConclusionsInterventions that target behaviour change to increase PA in people with SCI appear effective. Utilising behaviour change frameworks and specific behaviour change techniques augments PA uptake and levels, and interventions aimed at improving PA in people with SCI should incorporate a behaviour modification component. More research is needed on the isolated effect of intervention structure parameters and specific behaviour change techniques.     

Motivational profiles and flow in physical education lessons

The purpose of this study was to use cluster analysis to identify differences in goal orientation and motivational climate profiles among students in physical education classes as well as differences among the observed clusters on perceived flow experiences. 983 students of 14- to 15-yr.-olds (M = 14.8 yr., SD = 0.91) from a large Spanish metropolitan school district were participants and completed questionnaires assessing goal orientations, motivational climates, and perceived flow. Analysis showed three distinct clusters with 40.3% of the sample with a High Motivation cluster, 27.6% in a Low Motivation cluster, and 32.2% in a Mastery Motivation cluster. These three clusters differed significantly in ratings of perceived flow. Clusters also showed different composition by sex. Implications of these results with regard to instruction in physical education classes are discussed.     

A dimensional and person-centered perspective on controlled reasons for non-participation in physical education

ObjectivesMost theories of motivation, including Self-Determination Theory (SDT), focus mainly on students’ reasons for participating in activities, at the expense of a focus on reasons for non-participation. In terms of underlying reasons for non-participation, SDT has focused primarily on amotivation. The present study investigated reasons for non-participation that are driven by externally or internally pressuring demands (i.e., controlled motivated non-participation), thereby relying on a dimensional and person-centered approach.Design and methodParticipants were 647 secondary school students (69% boys, Mage = 13.27 years) and their 14 PE teachers (93% men; Mage = 35.50 years). Students reported on their own motivation for participation and non-participation and outcomes (i.e., learning, feelings of resentment towards both the lesson and the teacher), and teachers rated the students’ performance. Multilevel regression modeling (i.e. dimensional approach) and cluster analysis (i.e. person-centered approach) were used.ResultsConfirmatory factor analyses indicated that controlled motivated non-participation and amotivation represent distinct reasons for non-participation that can also be discerned from controlled and autonomously motivated participation. Controlled motivated non-participation yielded unique associations with feelings of resentment towards both the lesson and the teacher, but not with learning and teacher-rated performance. Person-centered analyses indicated that the group characterized by elevated levels of both controlled motivated participation and non-participation in combination with amotivation displayed the least beneficial pattern of outcomes.ConclusionThe current findings point to the importance of more intensively studying students’ reasons for non-participation. Directions for future research are discussed.     

Physical activity participation and physical aggression in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundAggressive behaviour is a substantial behavioural problem in children and adolescents. This review systematically summarises the current evidence on the relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour and quantifies the effects of physical activity interventions on aggression in children and adolescents.MethodsStudies were identified through a search of five electronic databases (PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE, CINAHL and Web of Science) with combinations of three groups of keywords. Two independent reviewers screened and extracted data from the individual studies. The reporting quality and publication bias were assessed. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was systematically summarized. Data (effect sizes) were pooled to investigate the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour. A moderator meta-analysis was performed to identify potential moderators of the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour.ResultsNineteen studies met the inclusion criteria. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was mixed. A significant reduction in aggressive behaviour was observed after physical activity interventions (k = 8, SMD = −0.53, 95% CI [−0.27, −0.79], p < 0.001). The moderator meta-analysis showed that physical activity interventions involving team-based physical activity had greater effects than those involving individual-based physical activity (β = 0.42, SE = 0.18, p = 0.02). In addition, interventions involving physical activity alone were more effective in reducing aggressive behaviour than those that combined physical activity with other activities such as a philosophy course (β = −0.63, SE = 0.11, p < 0.001).ConclusionThe current meta-analysis presents evidence for the effect of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Physical activity–only interventions involving team-based physical activity might be used for preventing or reducing aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Possible mechanisms, methodological strengths and weaknesses, implications, and suggestions for future studies were discussed.     

Change in physical self-perceptions across the transition to secondary school: Relationships with perceived teacher-emphasised achievement goals in physical education

ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine the effects of change in perceived teacher achievement goal emphasis in physical education (PE) on physical self-perceptions and self-esteem across the transition to secondary school.Design & methodsA longitudinal design was adopted with three time points, one at the end of primary school and two during the first year of secondary school. Participants (N = 491) were cross-classified by primary (N = 42) and secondary (N = 46) PE class in order to examine the association between perceived class-level teacher-emphasised goals and within-class student goals with self-beliefs.ResultsPersonal approach goals and class perceptions of teacher mastery approach goal promotion were all positively associated with ratings of co-ordination, sport competence, flexibility, and endurance in primary school. More favourable perceptions of coordination, sport competence, strength, flexibility, and endurance during the first year of secondary school were predicted by an increase in performance approach goal emphasis, whereas ratings of sport competence and flexibility were negatively associated with an increase in mastery approach goal emphasis.ConclusionsAlthough not entirely consonant with theoretical predictions, current findings suggest that teacher-emphasised performance approach goals in PE can promote development of several physical self-perceptions in the initial year of secondary school.     

The relationship between psychosocial developmental and the sports climate experienced by underserved youth

Objectives

This study was designed to assess developmental outcomes underserved youth report from their sports participation; identify perceptions of the sports climate their coaches create; and, measure the relationships between participants reported gains and perceptions of the psychosocial sports climate.

Method

Participants were 239 urban youth sports participants from an underserved community who completed the Youth Experiences Scale (YES-2), Sport Motivational Climate Scale, Caring Climate Scale and measures of the importance their coaches placed on life skills.

Results

Multivariate analyses revealed a number of significant relationships between YES-2 outcomes and motivation and caring climate predictor variables, which clearly show that the more coaches create caring, mastery-oriented environments, the more likely positive developmental gains result.

Conclusion

These findings are consistent with the previous motivational (Smith, Smoll, & Cumming, 2007) and caring climate (Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010) research and shows that coaching actions and climates have an important influence on personal and social development of young people.     

Motivational clusters in a sample of British physical education classes

Objectives: Based on recommendations from a recent review of self-determination theory (Vallerand, R. J. (1997). In: M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 271–360). New York: Academic Press) the present study aimed to uncover the different motivational profiles in physical education. It was expected that at least two motivational profiles would emerge: a self-determined profile and a controlling motivation/amotivation profile.Design: Cross-sectional survey.Method: Questionnaires were administered to 428 British students, aged between 14 and 16 years, from two schools in the Northwest of England.Results: A cluster analysis produced three motivational profiles in the first school, which were replicated in the second school. The first was named the ‘self-determined profile’ because the students displayed high self-determined motivation, effort, enjoyment, and cooperative learning, and low controlling motivation, amotivation, boredom, and unequal recognition. The second profile was the ‘moderate motivation profile’ with moderate scores on all variables measured. The third was named the ‘controlling motivation/amotivation’ profile because the students demonstrated high controlling motivation, amotivation, boredom, and unequal recognition, and low self-determined motivation, effort, and enjoyment.Conclusions: The results demonstrate the importance of developing self-determination in physical education, as it is associated with desirable behavioural and affective outcomes.     

Making Positive Changes Counseling (MPCC) Program: A Creative Adaptation of Motivational Interviewing for Use with Children in School Settings

ABSTRACT

Motivational Interviewing (MI)-based counseling can be creatively adapted for working with elementary school students in disciplinary alternative education program (DAEP) settings. The purpose of this article is to describe the implementation of MI with elementary-aged students in the DAEP. The Making Positive Changes Counseling (MPCC) program is a six-session program, which addresses children’s readiness for change, exploration of values and goals and current behaviors, recognition of personal strengths, perspective taking, recognition for possible changes, and effective decision making. The program is an adaptation of the standardized MI approach utilizing visuals and age-appropriate materials that are easily adaptable to individualized (or even group) guidance format.     

Effects of psychological interventions for patients with osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of psychological interventions (e.g. cognitive restructuring, relaxation) on physiological and psychological health in osteoarthritis patients. A systematic literature search was done using PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Database through November 2016. Studies were included if they used a randomized controlled trial designed to explore the effects of psychological interventions in osteoarthritis patients. Two independent authors assessed the methodological quality of the trials using criteria outlined by Jadad et al. Meta-analysis was done with the Revman5.0. Twelve randomized controlled trials, including 1307 osteoarthritis patients, met the study inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis showed that psychological interventions could reduce the levels of pain [standard mean difference (SMD) ?0.28, 95% CI ?0.48, ?0.08, P-value 0.005)] and fatigue (SMD ?0.18, 95% CI ?0.34, ?0.01, P-value 0.04). In addition, psychological interventions significantly improved osteoarthritis patients’ self-efficacy (SMD 0.58, 95% CI 0.40, 0.75, P-value 0.00) and pain coping (MD 1.64, 95% CI 0.03, 3.25, P-value 0.05). Although the effects on physical function, anxiety, depression, psychological disability were in the expected direction, they were not statistically significant. In conclusion, the role of psychological interventions in the management of osteoarthritis remains equivocal. Some encouraging results were seen with regard to pain, pain coping, self-efficacy, and fatigue. We believe that more methodologically rigorous large-scale randomized controlled trials are necessary to answer this study question.     

Dimensions of social identification with the team as predictors of the coach-created training climate in rugby: A group-actor partner interdependence modelling perspective

Recently, social identity approach has been giving stimulating insights in leadership in sport, considering social identification as a consequence regarding leadership processes. Nonetheless, social identity theory fundamentally posits social identification as a subjacent parameter of cognitions implied in the frame of interpersonal and intergroup relations. The current study aimed to enrich the existing literature by investigating athletes’ team identification as a predictor of the perception of coach-created climate. French male rugby union players (N = 248) completed an online survey measuring the multidimensionality of their social identification to the team, and their perception of the coach-created climate in terms of empowering and disempowering motivational climate. Using Group Actor-Partner Interdependence Modelling, the analyses revealed that the perception of the climate as empowering was driven by high scores on ingroup ties, especially when teammates’ ingroup ties scores were low. Team’s ingroup affect and cognitive centrality resulted in lower perception levels of the empowering climate. Neither player's ingroup ties nor cognitive centrality predicted the perception of the climate as empowering, and when player’s ingroup affect fitted into the group, his perception of a disempowering motivational climate decreased when ingroup affect score was high. The results are mainly discussed to the light of intergroup permeability by underlying the importance of considering social identification as a predictor of the perception of coach-athletes’ relationship. Some practical applications are put forward along with future directions for research on coach-athletes’ relationship. Especially, this study points out the importance of considering the social identity approach of leadership as a transactional relationship encapsulated in a mutual influence between the ingroup member social identification and that of the team as a whole.     

Motivational–cognitive profiles of learners: Cluster movement

The present study was designed to identify the motivational–cognitive profiles of students in Singapore secondary schools using cluster movement. Five distinct motivated strategies for learning (MSL) profiles based on a sample of 304 students were revealed: those with low levels of motivational beliefs and cognition but high anxiety (Poor MSL); high motivational beliefs and cognition but low anxiety (Good MSL); moderate high motivational beliefs, cognition and anxiety (Average MSL); high motivational beliefs, cognition and anxiety (High MSL); and low motivational beliefs, cognition and anxiety (Low MSL). Findings of this study also showed cluster movement across two time points, revealing the shifts in cluster membership in terms of motivational–cognitive profiles over time. Students in Good MSL demonstrated the most adaptive learning profile and achieved the highest grades than other clusters. Our findings contributed to practical underpinnings of educational research as well as provided meaningful insights to both researchers and practitioners.     

Self-regulated learning in physical education: Examining the effects of emulative and self-control practice

Objective

This study examined the effectiveness of sequential practice from the emulation to the self-control level of the social cognitive model of self-regulated learning development. The model proposes that students who practice with social feedback at the emulation level first and then set goals and self-record their performance at the self-control level master sport skills effectively.

Design

The design included one between-subjects factor, the group with five levels and one within-subjects factor, time (pre-test, post-test).

Method

One hundred fifth and sixth grade students (40 boys and 60 girls) were assigned to four experimental and one control group and practiced the basketball dribble.

Results

The results showed that students of all experimental groups improved their dribbling performance from pre- to post-test. Students who received social feedback and observed repeated demonstrations at the emulation level and then set process or performance goals and self-recorded their performance at the self-control level improved their dribbling performance more than students who missed emulative practice. No improvement was found for control group students.

Conclusions

These results supported the effectiveness of the social cognitive model of self-regulated learning development, showing that this model can be used as an instructional approach for teaching sport skills in physical education.