Age-Related Differences in Strategy Knowledge Updating: Blocked Testing Produces Greater Improvements in Metacognitive Accuracy for Younger than Older Adults

ABSTRACT

Age-related differences in updating knowledge about strategy effectiveness after task experience have not been consistently found, perhaps because the magnitude of observed knowledge updating has been rather meager for both age groups. We examined whether creating homogeneous blocks of recall tests based on two strategies used at encoding (imagery and repetition) would enhance people's learning about strategy effects on recall. Younger and older adults demonstrated greater knowledge updating (as measured by questionnaire ratings of strategy effectiveness and by global judgments of performance) with blocked (versus random) testing. The benefit of blocked testing for absolute accuracy of global predictions was smaller for older than younger adults. However, individual differences in correlations of strategy effectiveness ratings and postdictions showed similar upgrades for both age groups. Older adults learn about imagery's superior effectiveness but do not accurately estimate the magnitude of its benefit, even after blocked testing.     

Age-Related Differences in Memory Illusions: Revelation Effect

Older adults are often more susceptible to various illusions and distortions of memory than young adults. In the experiments reported here, we explored the question of whether normal aging was associated with a larger revelation effect, an illusion of memory in which items that are revealed gradually during a recognition test are more likely to be called old than unrevealed items that are shown in their entirety. Contrary to expectations, older adults were not susceptible to this memory illusion. A revelation effect occurred for young but not older adults, even when older adults were similar to young adults on measures of recognition and repetition priming. When data across experiments were combined, there was evidence for a negative revelation effect in older adults in which revealed items were less likely called old than unrevealed items. These results place boundary conditions on the claim that older adults are more susceptible than young adults to memory illusions, and imply that one or more mechanisms underlying the revelation effect are age sensitive.     

The Effect of Training on Preparatory Attention in Older Adults: Evidence for the Role of Uncertainty in Age-Related Preparatory Deficits

Thirty-two older adults and 20 younger adults completed a simple visual detection task in which the preparatory interval (PI; 1, 3, and 5 s) that separates the warning signal from the target varied randomly on each trial. Participants were divided into two groups. In a control condition, participants completed four blocks of trials with the three PIs occurring equally often within a block. In the experimental condition, participants completed an equal probability block (Block 1) followed by two blocks (Blocks 2 and 3) in which the shortest PI (1 s) occurred on 2/3 of the trials, followed again by an equal probability block (Block 4). In Block 1, the results indicated a larger PI effect in older than younger participants, independent of general slowing. Increasing the likelihood of the shortest PI (Blocks 2 and 3 in the experimental condition) improved RT in older and younger adults and led to an equivalent PI effect in both age groups. This was not observed in the control condition, in which the age-related difference persisted during the four blocks of trials. Importantly, the improvement observed in the experimental group was maintained in the fourth block, where the PIs were reverted to an equal probability distribution. This supports the hypothesis that elderly participants prepare for events that have the greatest probability of occurrence and that this is a flexible process that can be modulated with brief training.     

老年人的朋友参照效应

采用自我参照效应范式探讨老年人朋友参照效应的特点。城市老年人和农村老年人各36人参加实验1, 结果表明：(1)城乡老年人都表现出朋友参照效应; (2)与农村老年人相比, 城市老年人朋友参照效应指标显著高于自我参照效应指标。城市教育程度较高与教育程度较低老年人各36人参加实验2, 结果发现, 与城市教育程度较低的老年人相比, 城市教育程度较高的老年人朋友参照效应指标高于自我参照效应指标, 表明教育程度对朋友参照效应有显著影响。由此推断, 老年人会将朋友包含于自我图式之内, 并且教育程度会影响朋友在自我图式中的地位。     

Age-Group Differences in Interference from Young and Older Emotional Faces

Human attention is selective, focusing on some aspects of events at the expense of others. In particular, angry faces engage attention. Most studies have used pictures of young faces, even when comparing young and older age groups. Two experiments asked (1) whether task-irrelevant faces of young and older individuals with happy, angry, and neutral expressions disrupt performance on a face-unrelated task, (2) whether interference varies for faces of different ages and different facial expressions, and (3) whether young and older adults differ in this regard. Participants gave speeded responses on a number task while irrelevant faces appeared in the background. Both age groups were more distracted by own than other-age faces. In addition, young participants' responses were slower for angry than happy faces, whereas older participants' responses were slower for happy than angry faces. Factors underlying age-group differences in interference from emotional faces of different ages are discussed.     

Age-Related Differences in Metamemory Accuracy among the Elderly: The Effect of Declining Inhibitory Function

To explore the age-related difference in metamemory accuracy during older adulthood, we measured the metamemory calibration and resolution of older participants. In Study 1, we divided the participants into four groups by age: 60–64, 65–69, 70–74, and above 75 years. We used young adults as a contrast group. The results revealed the inconsistency of age-related differences in calibration and resolution. The young adults had higher calibration in global prediction than the four groups of older adults before the study, whereas there were no differences among the four elderly groups. There were no differences in resolution between the 60- to 64-year, 65- to 69-year and young adult groups, but these three groups had higher resolution than the 70- to 74-year and above 75-year groups for item-by-item prediction. In Study 2, we measured the older participants’ inhibitory function to explore whether impaired inhibitory function led to a decline in metacognitive ability in the elderly. The results showed that the inhibition function was highly correlated with the accuracy of judgments of learning (JOL) and can predict the accuracy of JOL to a certain extent.     

Depression in Older Adults

The purpose of this article is to address selected aspects of depression in older adults. Specifically, symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis, and interventions for depression in older adults are reviewed.     

Age-Related Differences in Identity Style: A Cross-Sectional Analysis

The Identity Style Inventory–Revised for a Sixth-Grade Reading Level (ISI-6G) was administered to samples of community college students (N = 99) and middle school and high school students (N = 320). Tests of between-groups differences indicated that the college sample had a significantly lower mean diffuse-avoidant score on the ISI-6G than the middle and high school sample. In terms of actual assignment to identity styles, college students were significantly more likely to be classified as informational or normative, while the younger students were more likely to be diffuse-avoidant. The mean ages of participants for each of the three identity styles were compared, and it was found that diffuse-avoidant participants had the lowest mean age (15.54 years), while individuals with an informational orientation had the highest mean age (17.20 years). Results suggest that, in general, identity style evolves with age and maturity and the general trajectory or progression involves movement away from a diffuse-avoidant orientation. Findings are discussed in terms of current knowledge of neurocognitive development during adolescence and early adulthood.     

Walking While Memorizing: Age-Related Differences in Compensatory Behavior

This study investigated predictions of the life-span theory of selection, optimization, and compensation, focusing on different patterns of task priority during dual-task performance in younger and older adults. Cognitive (memorizing) and sensorimotor (walking a narrow track) performance were measured singly, concurrently, and when task difficulty was manipulated. Use of external aids was measured to provide another index of task priority. Before dual-task testing, participants received extensive training with each component task and external aid. Age differences in dual-task costs were greater in memory performance than in walking, suggesting that older adults prioritized walking over memory. Further, when given a choice of compensatory external aids to use, older adults optimized walking, whereas younger adults optimized memory performance. The results have broad implications for systemic theories of cognitive and sensorimotor aging, and the costs and benefits of assistive devices and environmental support for older populations.     

Age Differences in the Magnitude of the Attentional Blink

When people attend to a target in a rapid sequence of items, their perception of a subsequent target is impaired for about 500 ms. This is termed the attentional blink. In the present experiment, a dual task rapid serial presentation task (Raymond, Shapiro & Arnell, 1992) was used as a measure of inhibitory function of younger and older adults. We found that the attentional blink was larger among older adults as compared to younger adults, supporting Hasher and Zacks' (1988) inhibitory deficit hypothesis and current models of the attentional blink.     

Age-Related Differences in the Rhythmic Structure of the Golf Swing

Participants were 20 younger golfers (M age = 19.8 years, SD = 1.84 years) and 20 older golfers (M age = 63.0 years, SD = 2.55 years) who attempted 40- and 80-yard eight-iron shots requiring an adjustment of their force and timing. No age-related differences were found in the tempo or speed of the shot; however, there were differences in the rhythmic relationship between the clubhead force and the weight shift. Whereas younger golfers primarily exhibited a 3 versus 2 polyrhythmic pattern between the peak forces of the clubhead and weight shift, older golfers primarily exhibited a simpler 3 versus 3 rhythmic force pattern by adding a forward weight shift at the beginning of the shot. Additionally, older golfers exhibited less independence between the timing of the clubhead force and weight shift, which indicated greater use of a single integrated coordinative unit rather than 2 units. These findings are interpreted as compensations for age-related slowing and increased temporal variability that help to preserve tempo at a speed comparable to younger adults.     

身体活动对老年认知功能的影响

如何促进老年人的认知功能, 延缓认知老化, 是老年心理学的关键课题之一。大量研究表明不同的身体活动类型、活动强度、活动量以及生命早期的身体活动可能对老年人认知功能的各个方面有积极的影响, 包括执行功能、注意力、认知速度、记忆力等。此外, 选择性提高假说、心血管功能假说以及认知-锻炼模型用来解释这一影响机制。这些发现对维护老年人认知功能, 提高老年人的生命质量, 有效延缓衰老有着重要的意义。     

Psychological Separation of Older Adolescents and Young Adults From Their Parents: An Investigation of Gender Differences

Gender differences were examined in 182 freshman college students who had completed a packet of questionnaires and inventories to address the impact of separation from their parents and to test the relevance of self-in-relation theory. Instruments administered included the Social Support Questionnaire-Short Form (SSQ-6); the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales-Revised (FACES-R); and the Separation-Individuation Inventory. A multivariate analysis of variance performed on each instrument administered revealed significant differences between men and women on the SSQ-6 and the FACES-R. Differences indicated that, as expected, women reported establishing more of all kinds of support, were better satisfied with its quality, and viewed their families as more cohesive than did men. Unexpectedly, men and women viewed their families as equally socially desirable, and both men and women reported few disturbances in the separation-individuation process.     

Sexuality in Older Adults: A Deconstructionist Perspective

Societal myths argue against active expression of sexuality in older adults, but these prejudices are unfounded. Using a deconstructionist framework, this article addresses issues surrounding sexuality in older adults. Implications for clinical practice are given.     

Victim Blaming in Young, Middle-Aged, and Older Adults: Variations on the Severity Effect

It has been long known that people blame victims for the bad things that happen to them, and that people blame victims more when the victims experience severe difficulties than when they experience minor difficulties, even if the victims were not particularly irresponsible. Little previous research has examined victim blaming in middle-age and older adults. One hundred and forty-five adults in 3 age groups (18–34, 35–59, and 60–84) read 4 scenarios (2 accidents, 1 crime, and 1 fire) imbedded in other scenarios. The scenarios were varied so that the victim is either very irresponsible or not very irresponsible, and the outcome is mild or severe. The oldest group of participants blamed the victims more than the other groups. However, in contrast to the typical severity effect, the oldest group blamed the very irresponsible victim more when the outcome was mild than they did when the outcome was severe.     

Age and Gender Differences in Adaptation and Subjective Well-being of Older Adults Residing in Monastic Religious Communities

The purpose of this study was to explore age and gender differences in the adaptation and well-being of older adults residing in Catholic monasteries. Participants included 235 members, age 64 and older, from the Order of St. Benedict. 2 (Age) × 2 (Gender) analyses of variance were computed to determine significant differences. Young-old persons reported greater friendship, coping behaviors, and personal growth, however, old-old individuals reported greater engagement in religious coping and greater depression. In addition, women reported greater coping behaviors, life satisfaction, and personal growth, but men reported greater depression. The results have implications on how pastoral care providers and counselors can improve quality of life among older adults living in contemplative religious settings.     

学科能力内隐观的普遍性及其年龄差异

数学、中文等学科能力,是先天固有不可改变的？,还是后天环境培养塑造,可以改变的？学生心目中对这类问题的主观想法,会直接影响学生的学习行为。其影响的范围,将取决于这类主观想法是否具有普遍性。比如,有些学生认为数学得父母遗传的,很难改变这些学生会不同同样认为中文、外语能力等,也是父母遗传的,变难改变？本研究了解是否有一主导思想,影响学生对不同学科能力的整体看法,同时也分析学生这类主观想法的年龄差异,。     

Influences on Loneliness in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis

A widely held stereotype associates old age with social isolation and loneliness. However, only 5% to 15% percent of older adults report frequent loneliness. In this study, we report a meta-analysis of the correlates of loneliness in late adulthood. A U-shaped association between age and loneliness is identified. Quality of social network is correlated more strongly with loneliness, compared to quantity; contacts with friends and neighbors show stronger associations with loneliness, compared to contacts with family members. Being a woman, having low socioeconomic status and low competence, and living in nursing homes were also associated with higher loneliness. Age differences in the association of social contacts and competence with loneliness are investigated as well.     

Enhancing the Cognitive Vitality of Older Adults

Aging is associated with decline in a multitude of cognitive processes and brain functions. However, a growing body of literature suggests that age-related decline in cognition can sometimes be reduced through experience, cognitive training, and other interventions such as fitness training. Research on cognitive training and expertise has suggested that age-related cognitive sparing is often quite narrow, being observed only on tasks and skills similar to those on which individuals have been trained. Furthermore, training and expertise benefits are often realized only after extensive practice with specific training strategies. Like cognitive training, fitness training has narrow effects on cognitive processes, but in the case of fitness training, the most substantial effects are observed for executive-control processes.     

Age-Related Differences in Implicit Learning of Non-Spatial Sequential Patterns

This experiment investigated whether there are age differences in implicit learning of non-spatially arranged sequential patterns. We tested 12 young and 12 old participants for five sessions each in a non-spatial alternating serial reaction time (ASRT) task, in which predictable pattern events alternated with random, unpredictable ones. People of both ages were able to learn the sequence, but older people showed less pattern sensitivity than younger ones. Neither group was able to exhibit declarative knowledge of the pattern or to discriminate between pattern and random sequences on a recognition test, suggesting that the learning was indeed implicit. These findings indicate that the age deficits previously observed in the learning of spatial sequences are not due solely to age-related deficits in visuo-spatial attention or control of eye movements, but rather reflect a more general deficit in the ability to learn subtle sequential regularities.