Objective and subjective measures indicate that orthographically similar words produce a blocking experience

Memory blocks are a common experience characterised by inappropriate retrieval of information that impairs memory search processes. In five studies, memory blocks were induced via exposure to orthographically similar words (Smith & Tindell, 1997) while participants reported their subjective experiences to determine whether the memory block effect (MBE) paradigm produces a feeling of being blocked. Experiments 1 and 3 provided evidence that the MBE is associated with more blocked experiences. In Experiments 2 and 4 increased blocking experiences correlated with blocked fragments when the experimental manipulation was disguised, which demonstrates that ratings were not contaminated by demand characteristics. Experiment 5 demonstrated that blocking happens even when there is no study list. Collectively, the subjective retrieval ratings and the objective response data provide converging evidence that exposure to orthographically similar words induces a memory block characterised by an ineffective memory search that perseverates on interfering information.     

Evaluations of subjective complexity,pleasingness and interestingness for a series of random polygons varying in complexity

A series of random-shaped polygons varying in number of sides in approximately even logarithmic steps from four to 160 sides was generated. Ss were required to compare all possible pairs of figures on one of three scales-subjective complexity, pleasingness and interestingness. Subjective evaluations of complexity continued to increase with informational content. Pleasingness evaluations described a bimodal function, peafeing at the 6-sided and 28-sided levels then falling rapidly with increased complexity. Interestingness efaluations rosé to a peafe at the 28-sided figure and remained high throughout the rest of the series.     

Optimizing subjective measures of consciousness

Dienes and Seth (2010) conclude that confidence ratings and post-decision wagering are two comparable and recommendable measures of conscious experience. In a recently submitted paper, we have however found that both methods are problematic and seem less suited to measure consciousness than a direct introspective measure.Here, we discuss the methodology and conclusions put forward by Dienes and Seth, and why we think the two experiments end up with so different recommendations.     

Objective and subjective assessments of parenting in hyperactive preschoolers

Objective: To evaluate whether the mother–child interactions of hyperactive preschool children and their typically developing peers differentially vary as a function of situational demands, and whether groupwise differences exist with respect to disciplinary practices and family lifestyles (e.g. level of parental investment, strategies for responding to child‐initiated provocation). Methods: Parenting practices were assessed via videotaped parent–child interactions and self‐report methods in mother–child dyads of 21 hyperactive preschoolers and 48 age‐matched control dyads. Results: Hyperactive preschoolers were significantly more non‐compliant during parent–child interactions. Mothers of hyperactive preschoolers exhibited more negative behaviour and less encouragement with heightened situational demands. Although few significant differences were reported regarding disciplinary practices, parents of hyperactive preschoolers reported greater levels of anger and child rearing difficulty, and perceived their children as more bothersome. Conclusions: Parents of hyperactive preschoolers may profit from interventions that are sensitive to the impact of situational changes on their behaviour and which address possible attributional biases regarding the source of parent–child discord. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Temporal fluctuations in driving demand: The effect of traffic complexity on subjective measures of workload and driving performance

Traffic density has been shown to be a factor of traffic complexity which influences driver workload. However, little research has systematically varied and examined how traffic density affects workload in dynamic traffic conditions. In this driving simulator study, the effects of two dynamically changing traffic complexity factors (Traffic Flow and Lane Change Presence) on workload were examined. These fluctuations in driving demand were then captured using a continuous subjective rating method and driving performance measures. The results indicate a linear upward trend in driver workload with increasing traffic flow, up to moderate traffic flow levels. The analysis also showed that driver workload increased when a lane change occurred in the drivers’ forward field of view, with further increases in workload when that lane change occurred in close proximity. Both of these main effects were captured via subjective assessment and with driving performance parameters such as speed variation, mean time headway and variation in lateral position. Understanding how these traffic behaviours dynamically influence driver workload is beneficial in estimating and managing driver workload. The present study suggests possible ways of defining the level of workload associated with surrounding traffic complexity, which could help contribute to the design of an adaptive workload estimator.     

Influence of generalized complexity of a musical event on subjective time estimation

This study examined the variations in the apparent duration of music events produced by differences in their generalized compositional complexity. Stimuli were the first 90 sec. of Gustav Mahler's 3rd Movement of Symphony No. 2 (low complexity) and the first 90 sec. of Luciano Bério's 3rd Movement of Symphony for Eight Voices and Orchestra (high complexity). Bério's symphony is another "reading" of Mahler's. On the compositional base of Mahler's symphony, Bério explored complexity in several musical elements--temporal (i.e., rhythm), nontemporal (i.e., pitch, orchestral and vocal timbre, texture, density), and verbal (i.e., text, words, phonemes). These two somewhat differently filled durations were reproduced by 10 women and 6 men with a stopwatch under the prospective paradigm. Analysis showed that the more generalized complexity of the musical event was followed by greater subjective estimation of the duration of this 90-sec. symphonic excerpt.     

Instruction-prompted objective behaviors as proxy for subjective measures in a driving simulator

Interactions with other road users and interpretations of traffic situations are important aspects of driving safety. Self-reports are often used to study drivers’ perceptions and attitudes but self-reports can be inaccurate and biased because of socially desirable responding. Driving simulators offer objective measures of driver behaviors but have limited ability to elicit natural behaviors. To address this issue, we tested a driving simulator-based approach that combined realistic driving scenarios including potentially frustrating forward obstacles and delays in travel time with two different types of instructions. Participants' vehicle control behaviors and subjective perception of traffic delays were compared. Results demonstrated that behaviors collected following instructions to drive safely did not have significant associations with participants’ perceptions of the traffic delays while participants following instructions to drive quickly demonstrated behaviors that were predictive of their subjective perceptions of the traffic delays. The findings suggest that vehicle control behaviors can be used as a proxy for subjective perceptions of traffic delays. We conclude that driving simulator methodology combining instructions, realistic traffic scenarios, and adaptive analytical methods is appropriate for studying drivers’ behaviors and interactions with other road users and can minimize the need to rely on subjective self-reports.     

Physiological and subjective measures of anxiety during flooding

Patterns of physiological arousal and subjective reports of anxiety were examined during individual sessions of imaginal flooding of five phobic subjects. A curvilinear pattern of increased, followed by decreased, arousal characterized changes in heart rate, respiration rate and subjective anxiety. Heart rate tended to reach its peak level before respiration rate and subjective anxiety. Intercorrelations between these measures were generally positive and significant. Comparisons between periods of high and low subjective arousal revealed a significantly greater correlation for low than for high arousal only for the subjective anxiety by respiration-rate correlation.     

Objective risk, subjective risk, and colorectal cancer screening among a clinic sample

Among cancers, colorectal (CRC) is the third most incident and the second most lethal. Although screening for the disease has been shown to be effective in reducing morbidity and mortality, screening rates remain low. Risk of disease has been shown to increase screening uptake, but different types of risk may influence intent to screen, screening in a timely manner, or participating in screening at all. A cross-sectional design was used to select a diverse sample of CRC asymptomatic patients 50 or more years of age (N=104) visiting one of three Midwestern medical clinics. Results showed a positive relationship between receipt of CRC screening and planning to screen for CRC in the future. Objective risk factors (personal/family history and having a primary care physician) were associated with CRC screening uptake and screening within the time intervals recommended by professional screening guidelines, but subjective risk did not obtain significance for screening participation. Both objective (primary care physician) and subjective risk (long-term comparative risk, knowledge) were associated with future plans to screen. Findings suggest that CRC screening behaviors may be differentially influenced by type of risk.     

Objective vs subjective assessment of relaxation compliance among anxious individuals

Previous relaxation outcome research has lacked means to empirically determine how well Ss comply in home-practice assignments. This study reports on a relaxation assessment device (RAD) used by 21 adults who received 4 weeks of relaxation therapy for generalized anxiety. The RAD consists of a digital wristwatch, with a stopwatch function, surreptitiously placed within Ss' tape-players to monitor the amount of relaxation practice at home. Comparison of self-reported and RAD-determined practice found that Ss exaggerated their actual practice by an average overestimation of 126%. Only one-fourth of the Ss performed relaxation daily. Anxiety reductions were significantly correlated with RAD-determined but not with self-reported practice. Self-efficacy judgments significantly correlated with relaxation compliance only when percent overestimation in self-reports was controlled. The need for objective compliance measures in relaxation outcome studies was discussed.     

Objective and subjective dimensions of travel impedance as determinants of commuting stress

The stressful characteristics of commuting constraints are conceptualized in terms of both physical and perceptual conditions of travel impedance. This study develops and operationalizes the concept of subjective impedance, as a complement to our previously developed concept of impedance as a physically defined condition of commuting stress. The stress impacts of high-impedance commuting were examined in a study of 79 employees of two companies in the follow-up testing of a longitudinal study. Subjective impedance was overlapping but not isomorphic with physical impedance, and these two dimensions have differential relationships with health and well-being outcomes. The physical impedance construct received further confirmation in validational analyses and in predicted effects on various illness measures and job satisfaction. The newly constructed subjective impedance index was significantly related to evening home mood, residential satisfaction, and chest pain. Job change was also influenced primarily by commuting satisfaction. The results are discussed within an ecological framework emphasizing interdomain transfer effects and situational moderators of commuting stress.     

Objective and subjective socioeconomic status and susceptibility to the common cold.

OBJECTIVE: We ask whether subjective socioeconomic status (SES) predicts who develops a common cold when exposed to a cold virus. DESIGN: 193 healthy men and women ages 21-55 years were assessed for subjective (perceived rank) and objective SES, cognitive, affective and social dispositions, and health practices. Subsequently, they were exposed by nasal drops to a rhinovirus or influenza virus and monitored in quarantine for objective signs of illness and self-reported symptoms. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Infection, signs and symptoms of the common cold, and clinical illness (infection and significant objective signs of illness). RESULTS: Increased subjective SES was associated with decreased risk for developing a cold for both viruses. This association was independent of objective SES and of cognitive, affective and social disposition that might provide alternative spurious (third factor) explanations for the association. Poorer sleep among those with lesser subjective SES may partly mediate the association between subjective SES and colds. CONCLUSIONS: Increased Subjective SES is associated with less susceptibility to upper respiratory infection, and this association is independent of objective SES, suggesting the importance of perceived relative rank to health.     

Leisure interest patterns and subjective stress in college students

A first study of the Leisure Interests Checklist (LIC) is reported based on a large (N = 670) normative sample of college students. Acceptable reliability was found on the total interest scores, and on both rationally- and factorially-derived LIC subscales. The BAROMAS stress scales were also studied concurrently with the same college students, and normative data are provided from that sample. Interest in very active diversions and Sports on the LIC did correlate with confidence in doing sports on the BAROMAS. Otherwise, the two instruments showed little overlap. Comparisons between ethnic and gender groupings mainly agreed with advance expectations by disclosing culturally conventional differences in response patterns. The LIC appears promising for future use in both applied and research contexts.     

Irrelevant sound effects amongst younger and older adults: Objective findings and subjective insights

Two experiments examine the effects of extraneous speech and nonspeech noise on a visual short-term memory task administered to younger and older adults. Experiment 1 confirms an earlier report that playing task-irrelevant speech is no more distracting for older adults than for younger adults (Rouleau & Belleville, 1996), indicating that “irrelevant sound effects” in short-term memory operate in a different manner to recalling targets in the presence of competing speech (Tun, O'Kane, & Wingfield, 2002). Experiment 2 extends this result to nonspeech noise and demonstrates that the result cannot be ascribed to hearing difficulties amongst the older age group, although the data also show that older adults rated the noise as less annoying and uncomfortable than younger adults. Implications for theories of the irrelevant sound effect, and for cognitive ageing, are discussed.     

Temporal lobe signs and reports of subjective paranormal experiences in a normal population: a replication

Correlations (r = 0.50) were found between the numbers of different psi (paranormal) experiences and the numbers of temporal lobe signs within a population of university students (n = 99). The strongest correlation of 0.60 occurred with a cluster of signs that are similar to symptoms reported by patients who show chronic foci in the mesiobasal temporal lobe. However, there were no significant correlations between numbers of different psi experiences and clusters of control items or a lie scale. Specific analyses of the 140 items of the inventory indicated only 23 reached statistical criterion (p less than .001). Of these 17 were direct temporal lobe signs that implied deepened affect, auditory-vestibular experiences (vibrations, hearing one's name called), olfactory auras, perseveration ("forced" thinking), depersonalization, and sense of the personal. Five items involved beliefs about exotic phenomena or philosophical ideas. Only one item was from a control cluster. These results support the hypothesis that mystical or paranormal experiences are associated with transient electrical foci within the temporal lobe of the human brain. The repeated occurrence of these experiences within normal individuals may be embedded within a more complex symptomatology of temporal lobe signs.