Effects of passive physical exercise on peripheral vision in muscular dystrophic children

To investigate the effects of passive exercise of the extremities on peripheral vision of muscular dystrophic children aged 9 to 13 yr. these subjects were either not exercised (control days) for a 6-min. period or were exercised (experimental days) for a 6-min. period after a 5-min. rest. Peripheral vision was recorded after each condition. Analysis of variance with repeated measures on the exercise and no exercise conditions was computed for each measure. 6 min. of passive exercise significantly increased peripheral vision. It was assumed that exercise increased blood flow through the lungs allowing for greater oxygen diffusion in the brain and other facilitory responses which increased effective cerebral activity. Curriculum revisions for such children indicate the importance of activity in facilitating subsequent learning.     

Executive functioning and psychological adjustment in children and youth with spina bifida

Children and adolescents with spina bifida are at risk for poor neuropsychological functioning and psychological outcomes. The relationship between executive functioning and psychological adjustment is an area worthy of investigation in this population. The current study assessed executive functioning and psychological outcomes in a group of children and adolescents with spina bifida (SBM) (n = 51) and nondisabled controls (n = 45). A mediation model was hypothesized, such that Metacognition, as measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), mediated the relationship between group status (spina bifida versus nondisabled controls) and psychological outcomes. Results indicated that metacognitive skills fully explained the relationship between group and internalizing and depressive symptoms as reported by mothers. In particular, specific components of the BRIEF Metacognition composite were most responsible for this relationship, including Initiate, Working Memory, and Plan/Organize. The study limitations include its cross-sectional nature that precludes drawing conclusions about causality. The results have implications for treatment interventions for children and adolescents with spina bifida and typically developing individuals.     

Neuromotor speech deficits in children and adults with spina bifida and hydrocephalus

Acquired cerebellar lesions are associated with motor speech deficits. Spina bifida with hydrocephalus (SBH) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that involves significant dysmorphology of the cerebellum. Videotaped narratives produced by 40 children and adults with SBH and their 40 age-matched controls were coded for three motor speech deficits: dysfluency, ataxic dysarthria (articulatory inaccuracy, prosodic excess, and phonatory-prosodic insufficiency) (Brown, Darley, & Aronson, 1970; Darley, Aronson, & Brown, 1969a), and speech rate. Individuals with SBH had more motor speech deficits than controls. Dysfluency was related to an interaction between chronological age and SBH. Speech rate was related independently to chronological age and SBH. Ataxic dysarthria was related to the biology of SBH, and was associated with both physical phenotype (level of spinal cord lesion) and medical history (number of shunt revisions). The data show that developmental as well as acquired lesions of the cerebellum disrupt motor speech, and add to the developmental role of the cerebellum in the automatization of motor skills, including speech.     

The influence of juggling on mental rotation performance in children with spina bifida

This study examined the influence of juggling training on mental rotation ability in children with spina bifida. Children between the ages of 8 and 12 solved a chronometric mental rotation test. Half of the children received juggling training (EG) over an 8week time period; the other half did not receive training (CG). Afterwards, all participants completed the mental rotation test again. Children of the EG showed a significant decrease in reaction time and an increase in mental rotation speed compared to the control group. This indicates that juggling improves the rotation in the mental rotation process in children with spina bifida.     

Spatial knowledge of children with spina bifida in a virtual large-scale space

The spatial knowledge of 18 children with spina bifida and 18 healthy control children (matched according to sex, age, and verbal IQ) was investigated in a computer-simulated environment. All children had to learn a route through a virtual floor system containing 18 landmarks. Controlling for cognitive abilities, the results revealed that children with spina bifida showed impaired route knowledge but not an impaired landmark knowledge. Thus the results suggest that children with spina bifida are not impaired in all large-scale abilities similarly. The impairments of the children with spina bifida are more accentuated in more behaviour based measurements, which indicates a relation to the reduced mobility of the children with spina bifida.     

Attention problems and executive functions in children with spina bifida and hydrocephalus.

This study addressed the incidence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) subtypes in children with spina bifida meningomyelocele and shunted hydrocephalus (SBH) as well as differences in executive functions among these subtypes. Parent rating scales revealed that 31% of the group with SBH could be identified with AD/HD, mostly the Inattentive type (23%). The group with SBH differed from normal controls on cognitive measures of executive functions, but subtype differences were not significant. Multivariate tests showed that children with SBH were rated with greater difficulties on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) compared to controls; those with SBH and any subtype of ADHD differed from those with SBH and no ADHD; and those with ADHD (Combined Type) differed significantly from those with ADHD (Predominantly Inattentive Type). Subtype differences on univariate tests in the latter comparison were significant on the BRIEF Inhibit scale, showing more disinhibition in those with SBH and ADHD (Combined Type), but no significant differences were apparent on the BRIEF Sustain, Shift, and Initiate scales. The results show that the incidence of ADHD in children with SBH exceeds the population rate, is represented by problems with inattention rather than with impulsivity and hyperactivity; and that as with non-brain injured individuals, subtype differences in cognitive function remain to more clearly delineated.     

Visual but not spatial working memory deficit in children with spina bifida

Twenty children with spina bifida and twenty controls were assessed on a battery of visuospatial working memory tests. Children with spina bifida performed as well as the control group in the visuospatial test and in the forward and backward versions of the Corsi test, but were impaired in the 'House Visual Span.' This test, designed in our lab, provides specific information regarding visual ability to discriminate between pictorial targets and lures, and requires specific visual processing of stimuli. These results are discussed in terms of working memory models and are viewed as supporting the distinction between the visual and spatial components of working memory.     

Spatial cognition and motor development: a study of children with spina bifida

The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between motor development and spatial cognition. The sample was 20 children with Spina bifida (M age: 11.4 yr., SD = 1.7) and 20 healthy children as controls (M age: 11.8, SD = 1.8 yr.). An experimental assessment of motor development in spatial cognition in a simulated virtual maze by school-age children is lacking. In this study children with Spina bifida, who were impaired in walking since birth, completed four visuospatial tasks in a small-scale space (Mental Rotation, Water-Level Task, Embedded Figures Test, Visual Short-term Memory Test), and a spatial behaviour and knowledge task in a virtual maze. These children showed poorer performance than children in the control group on most measures. The results are discussed with respect to theoretical implications and further research.     

Secondary conditions in children with disabilities: spina bifida as a case example

This paper examines the concept of secondary conditions and its application in studies of childhood disability focusing on children with spina bifida as a representative group. The "International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health" (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2001) provides a classification of body function/structure, activities, participation and the environment to document dimensions of human functioning in context. The ICF is of value in the study of secondary conditions in two ways: as a conceptual framework for defining impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions, and the mediating role of the environment in their expression; and as a taxonomy for coding these dimensions of disability. The ICF can yield a profile of a child's difficulties, and documentation of environmental barriers experienced by that child. Research studies with children and adolescents with spina bifida reveal that physical and mental impairments and limitations in performing activities and participating in communal life are experienced as secondary conditions. The significance of secondary conditions is that they are preventable. Identifying the mechanisms associated with their manifestation is thus an important priority for the development of effective prevention programs.     

Optimism,appraisals, and coping in the adjustment of mothers and their children with spina bifida

Families of children with physical disabilities show substantial differences in the levels of adjustment of both the children and their parents. These differences result, in part, from the complex interplay of family and child adaptation resources, such as coping and social support. In order to identify factors which may differentiate levels of adjustment among families with children with physical disabilities, this study examined relationships among optimism, primary and secondary appraisals of and coping with child-related stressors, maternal psychological adjustment, and child adjustment in 29 families with a child with spina bifida without mental retardation and 28 comparison families with a nondisabled child. For the spina bifida group, primary appraisals were related to the use of avoidant coping strategies, and these coping strategies were related to maternal psychological adjustment and child internalizing behavior problems. No significant differences between the groups in terms of the nature of the relationships or in the levels of the variables were found with the exception that mothers of children with spina bifida were less optimistic than comparison mothers. These data support the importance of coping in understanding the psychological adjustment of mothers faced with a chronic stressor in the family.     

Idiom comprehension deficits in relation to corpus callosum agenesis and hypoplasia in children with spina bifida meningomyelocele

Idioms are phrases with figurative meanings that are not directly derived from the literal meanings of the words in the phrase. Idiom comprehension varies with: literality, whether the idiom is literally plausible; compositionality, whether individual words contribute to a figurative meaning; and contextual bias. We studied idiom comprehension in children with spina bifida meningomyelocele (SBM), a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with problems in discourse comprehension and agenesis and hypoplasia of the corpus callosum. Compared to age peers, children with SBM understood decomposable idioms (which are processed more like literal language) but not non-decomposable idioms (which require contextual analyses for acquisition). The impairment in non-decomposable idioms was related to congenital agenesis of the corpus callosum, which suggests that the consequences of impaired interhemispheric communication, whether congenital or acquired in adulthood, are borne more by configurational than by compositional language.     

Factors of biological risk and reserve associated with executive behaviors in children and adolescents with spina bifida myelomeningocele.

This study examined differences between healthy children (n = 35) and those with spina bifida myelomeningocele (SBM; n = 42) on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), a measure of executive function behaviors. It also examined whether aspects of biological risk associated with SBM and reserve factors within the family could account for variability in BRIEF scores for children and adolescents with SBM. Patients in the SBM group exhibited more problems than both published norms and a local comparison group of healthy children in metacognition but not behavior regulation. Behavior regulation problems in children with SBM were predicted by parent psychological distress. More shunt-related surgeries and history of seizures predicted poorer metacognitive abilities.     

Early information processing among infants with and without spina bifida

This study focuses on the development of early visual information processing among infants with spina bifida (SB) compared to typically developing infants using the habituation–dishabituation paradigm. Analyses were conducted in two stages. First infants were evaluated to determine if 18-month old infants (SB = 47; Control = 40) differed in their ability to shift attention and habituate to two female faces, as well as their responses to composite and novel stimuli. Second, relations between these variables and infant motor and mental functioning were evaluated. The results of the study indicated that difficulties with visual attention skills can be detected as early as 18 months of age among infants with SB. Infants with SB differed significantly from controls on attention getting. Although there were no differences found on habituation and composite tasks, infants with SB differed significantly from controls on their ability to dishabituate. Implications are discussed.     

Impairment of a motor skill in children with spina bifida cystica and hydrocephalus: an exploratory study.

Twenty 7-10 year old children with spina bifida cystica and hydrocephalus and 20 normals matched for age, sex and IQ were compared on a 12-trial target task, first used by Connolly, Brown & Bassett (1968). Analysis of the results, in which particular attention was paid to statistical method and to ways of analysing individual differences, showed a significant impairment in dotting speed in the spina bifida group, although both groups improved with practice. In a second experiment immediately following the first, visual monitoring of this task was restricted. The spina bifida children were initially more affected than the controls but able to recover. The findings are discussed in relation to neurological abnormalities in the spina bifida group.     

Object‐based visual processing in children with spina bifida and hydrocephalus: A cognitive neuropsychological analysis

The aim of the study was to use cognitive neuropsychological analysis to investigate object‐based visual processing skills in children with spina bifida myelomeningocele and hydrocephalus (SBH). Fourteen children with SBH (aged 8–12) and 21 age‐, socio‐economic status‐, and Verbal IQ‐matched healthy controls were assessed using the Birmingham Object Recognition Battery. Overall, the performance of the children with SBH on the object‐processing tasks was intact, indicating normal development of the ventral visual processing pathway. While the initial results indicated that the children with SBH performed statistically significantly less accurately on some tasks, these group differences no longer met significance criteria after capacity for sustained attention was statistically controlled.     

Effects of computer-assisted practice on reading and spelling in children with learning disabilities

The main purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of computer-assisted practice on reading and spelling in children with learning disabilities (LD). We compared three practice conditions, one with reading and two with spelling, in order to test whether computer-based reading and spelling practice has an influence on the development of reading and spelling ability in children with LD. A sample was selected of 85 children with LD, with age range between 8 years and 10 years (age, M=111.02, SD=9.6), whose spelling performance was two years below grade level. The participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups: 1) Copy the target word from the computer screen (n=22), 2) Memorize the target word and write it from memory (n=21), 3) Word reading (n=21), and 4) the untrained control group (n=21). We administered measures of pseudoword reading, phonological awareness, phonological word decoding and orthographical word decoding tasks. We examined the learning effects and transfer effects on words classified as a function of length, consistency, and complexity of syllable structure. Overall, the results showed that reading training did not improve spelling; however, the children who participated in the copy training condition improved their spelling skills.     

Deaf and hearing children: a comparison of peripheral vision development

This study investigated peripheral vision (at least 30° eccentric to fixation) development in profoundly deaf children without cochlear implantation, and compared this to age-matched hearing controls as well as to deaf and hearing adult data. Deaf and hearing children between the ages of 5 and 15 years were assessed using a new, specifically paediatric designed method of static perimetry. The deaf group (N = 25) were 14 females and 11 males, mean age 9.92 years (range 5-15 years). The hearing group (N = 64) were 34 females, 30 males, mean age 9.13 years (range 5-15 years). All participants had good visual acuity in both eyes (< 0.200 LogMAR). Accuracy of detection and reaction time to briefly presented LED stimuli of three light intensities, at eccentricities between 30° and 85° were measured while fixation was maintained to a central target. The study found reduced peripheral vision in deaf children between 5 and 10 years of age. Deaf children (aged 5-10 years) showed slower reaction times to all stimuli and reduced ability to detect and accurately report dim stimuli in the far periphery. Deaf children performed equally to hearing children aged 11-12 years. Deaf adolescents aged 13-15 years demonstrated faster reaction times to all peripheral stimuli in comparison to hearing controls. Adolescent results were consistent with deaf and hearing adult performances wherein deaf adults also showed significantly faster reaction times than hearing controls. Peripheral vision performance on this task was found to reach adult-like levels of maturity in deaf and hearing children, both in reaction time and accuracy of detection at the age of 11-12 years.