Career guidance and social exclusion: a cautionary tale

The relationship of career guidance to public-policy interventions designed to address social exclusion is examined.The nature and origin of the concept of social exclusion are analysed, and the roles of career guidance in response to it are reviewed, particularly in relation to young people who have dropped out of formal education, training and employment or are at risk of doing so. It is suggested that such strategies need to take account of the subjective frame of reference of such young people, including understanding the work in which they are already engaged within the informal economies. The issues raised by such considerations provide a rationale for the partnership arrangements - with, for example, youth workers and community mentors - which have characterised these strategies. Within this context, the development of the new Connexions Service is critically examined. It is argued that it contains fundamental design flaws, from which a number of problems have stemmed. It is concluded that while career guidance has an important contribution to make in strategies to address social exclusion, this should be secondary to its role in supporting individual progression and development within the societal structures to which inclusion is being sought.     

Prolonged transitions to uncertain destinations: The implications for careers guidance

A set ofEuro-wide trends is discussed: the prolongation of young people's transitions, the individualisation of their biographies, and the greater uncertainty of their futures. It is argued that youth's new condition is currently being normalised throughout Europe, and that this process is aided by appropriate careers guidance which must be recurrent, customised, and couched in terms of possibilities. Problems that are posed for young people and their advisers in Britain, and in some other countries, by the persistent jobs deficit, the inability of some families to provide the support that youth's new condition requires, and the fact that some forms of vocational education and training are most likely to be dead-ends, are identified.     

The need for personal and social education in secondary schools and further education

The need for personal and social education in schools is outlined. Reference is made to the concept of psychological education that is being developed in the United States, and a model of personal growth and career development is described with particular emphasis on areas of personal growth that need to be developed within the school curriculum. Results of a survey of young people's personal and interpersonal problems are presented which give accounts of the range of difficulties 235 fourth year and fifth year boys and girls in secondary education and 36 young people in employment had in their interpersonal relationships with parents, teachers, employers, community authority figures, same- and opposite-sex friends, etc. Information was also obtained on what actually occupied young people's thoughts: the things they found it difficult to cope with and talk about, the things that they felt parents should tell their children, what they would like to talk to their teachers and parents about, and the attributes which they felt they could or could not change for themselves.     

Meaning of Social Inclusion to Young People Not in Employment,Education or Training

The ‘social inclusion’ of young people, particularly those who are ‘not in education, employment or training’, is a contemporary concern in policy discourses. However, it has been argued that the term ‘social inclusion’ is defined by adults and imposed on young people, and there is little understanding of what ‘social inclusion’ means to young people themselves. Using a participatory methodology, this study investigated what ‘being included’ meant to young people. A qualitative approach with a thematic analysis was used to explore the accounts of 11 participants and yielded three main themes. ‘“Acceptance”—the building blocks of inclusion’ reflected the power of interpersonal acceptance in determining young people's sense of inclusion. ‘“Learning why I don't matter”—when power and discourse shape inclusion’ illustrated how social discourses and power dynamics influenced young people's experience of inclusion. ‘“Keeping up or falling behind”—internalising the discourse of inclusion’ reflected how young people internalised some of these societal definitions of inclusion and responded to them. Those who felt ‘accepted’ or ‘included’ in a ‘mainstream’ sense articulated a sense of agency and hope. For those who did not, it appeared that agency dissolved as did a sense of hope for the future. Although the participants negotiated their ‘inclusion’ through close, trusting relationships with others, the application of the societal discourses of inclusion such as productivity, independence and career mindedness had the potential to leave them feeling excluded, isolated and distressed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The transition from school to work: An organisational approach

The thinking which has been done on the development of the self-concept as a factor in careers guidance is now being supplemented by thinking about the contexts within which young people develop these self-concepts. Adults who engage in guidance and counselling need to understand what they do against the background not only of the class origins of their students but also of the organisational settings which are relevant to their work. The different assumptions lying behind the organisations of schools and work-places are of critical importance. If those providing careers guidance do not understand some of these differences, the advice they give may be more confusing than supportive: rather than helping, it may handicap young people who are trying to be creative and responsible for themselves. Drawing on research done by the Grubb Institute, this paper outlines some key points about the organisation of schools and firms which can be taken into account by teachers, employers or careers officers seeking to advise young people in transition. These are: the different kinds of groups found in work and in school, especially in terms of size, stability and behaviour; the related assumptions about authority and leadership found in each; and the effect of these upon each individual's relationship with the organisation to which he belongs. Some suggestions are made about courses of action implied by the findings discussed in the paper, including implications for the role of the careers teacher.     

Correlates and consequences of uncertainty in career aspirations: Gender differences among adolescents in England

Young people today face a great deal of uncertainty regarding their career opportunities, yet relatively little information is known about the correlates and consequences of uncertain aspirations. Drawing upon the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England (LSYPE) born in 1989/90, this study examined a pathway model investigating whether uncertain career aspirations and other associated variables mediate the link between socioeconomic status and prior achievement and later educational outcomes. Gender differences were also examined. Findings indicate that adolescents who had lower prior achievement and were from lower socioeconomic backgrounds were more likely to have uncertainty in their career aspirations. The hypothesized model was supported to some extent, indicating that uncertain career aspirations and other associated variables were significant mediators. Unexpectedly, adolescents with uncertain career aspirations had higher academic performance at age 16 and a greater likelihood of educational enrollment at age 18 compared to those with high, certain aspirations, when parental educational expectations, school motivation, perceived academic ability and useful career advice were taken into account, suggesting that these young people may benefit from an extended period of moratorium in their career choice.     

Vocational Guidance for Trainee Teachers?: Some Caribbean Evidence

Guidance in further and higher education is comparatively neglected in many countries. This is particularly true of vocational guidance for trainee teachers. It is suggested that one can no longer assume that such trainees are already committed to a career in teaching. Evidence is offered from Jamaica and Antigua to show that about half the trainee teachers in those territories neither wanted nor look forward to a career in teaching. It is argued that their occupational preferences indicate a need for vocational guidance even as they are being trained for teaching. Finally, it is suggested that this policy is not as paradoxical as it may sound.     

Implications of data-analysis models for careers guidance

Data-analysis models for careers guidance have been mostly of the regression type, operating to transform trait assessments into predictions of career adjustments. If understanding of self and life-space is a prerequisite to decision-making and planning, models of the correlation type - which transform trait distributions of populations into knowledge of the antecedents of variance in careers phenomena - may need to take precedence in guidance programmes. Models of the two types have some guidance implications in common, but each type of model also has some special implications, which are discussed. It is argued that studying correlation models for career development data in the context of a sequential, structured guidance curriculum can provide young people with scientific attitudes and skills which will make them ready for personal predictions, decisions, and planning.     

Career guidance and therapeutic counselling: sharing ‘what works’ in practice with young people

Many young people in the UK and across the world, where austerity measures are biting deep, find themselves at a time of crisis and uncertainty in their lives. The assumptions previously held of clear and straightforward career paths are being challenged and ‘career’ has come to mean more than simply ‘work’ or ‘employment’. This has implications for career practice, where career advisers are engaging with a range of complex issues in their guidance interactions with clients. This article draws on research undertaken with therapeutic counsellors into ‘what works’ when counselling young people. It offers career practitioners the opportunity to reflect on four key emerging themes and to consider how the discipline of therapeutic counselling might inform guidance practice.     

Youth Suicide: The Knowledge and Attitudes of Australian Teachers and Clergy

This is the first study of the suicide-related knowledge and attitudes of teachers and clergy in Australia. These professional groups have been identified as “gatekeepers” who might serve as a first line of assistance for distressed young people. Such gatekeepers, along with medical and mental health professionals, have a vital role to play in the prevention of youth suicide, of which Australia has the highest rates in the world. This research confirmed that high numbers of teachers and clergy have been approached by suicidal young persons. However, their gatekeeping role may be compromised by a low level of knowledge about signs of suicide risk, which was found even among those who had taken courses in suicide or death and dying or who had personally known someone who suicided. Suicidal behavior was found to be generally regarded as unacceptable, especially by those with a high religious commitment. Further educational efforts about suicide risk identification and prevention seem to be needed for both teachers and clergy; it will be important for such education to take into account attitudinal issues and how these might affect communication with young suicidal people.     

Why Expecting Conflict Is Good

To understand whether young women's expectations of marriage-career role conflict may lead to strategic plans for combining roles and more successful role combination, data were analyzed from 117 women, primarily Caucasian, completing surveys in the Women's Life Paths Study in 1967 as college seniors and again in 1981. Seniors who wanted careers but anticipated conflict more often combined marriage and full-time career in 1981 than did those who wanted careers but expected no conflict. The latter combined marriage and career even less often than did those not initially wanting careers. Those who expected conflict asserted their career intentions with spouses, postponed childbearing, and had fewer children by 1981. Women not combining roles in 1981 most often reported conflict. Women with supportive partners less often reported conflict.     

Career guidance in five English independent schools

English independent schools are not required to follow government statutory guidance in a number of aspects including career education and guidance, and yet many are actively engaged in careers work and this has caught the attention of policymakers. State schools are subject to statutory guidance but, according to Ofsted and other authorities, the majority fail to adequately support young people through their post-school transitions. Using evidence from five English independent schools, the type of provision they offer is analysed against benchmarks of good practice to identify where their support is focussed. The factors that shape the resourcing and design of career education and guidance in the five schools are also explored. The extent to which the practices observed in the case studies can be replicated in all, or a sub-set of state schools, is discussed in the light of policy influence of independent schools.     

The effectiveness of sources of support in career decision-making: A two-year follow-up

Making career decisions is often difficult and challenging, and one way to advance in the process is to seek help. The present research focused on the various sources of support young adults tend to look for when making their career decision and the factors that affect their actual use of these sources. Study 1 elicited the self-reported help-seeking behavior and the Career Decision-Making Profile (CDMP) from 1071 young adults (ages 18–35) who had already chosen their major(s) at a university. The young adults used sources that were easily accessible, even when they were perceived as being less effective. Additionally, those with less career decision-making adaptability, as derived from the CDMP, tended to seek help more often. Study 2, a two-year follow-up of 296 young adults who participated in Study 1, revealed that getting help reduced the likelihood of changing one’s major.     

Testing times: careers market policies and practices in England and the Netherlands

Careers work is a very political business. Since the early 1990s, successive governments in England and the Netherlands have persistently challenged those working in the careers sector to demonstrate the educational, social and economic value and impact of their work. In this context, the marketisation of career guidance policies and practices has expanded, with a growing assumption that market-based goods and services ensure greater responsiveness to consumer choice and offer better and/or more innovative services for lower prices. In this article, we do not intend to give a comparison of trends in England and the Netherlands. We only examine the impact of market principles applied to career guidance provision in both countries. Findings indicate such provision for young people is on a steady decline. Lessons learned from these two nations indicate that a market for quality career services does not exist in schools and colleges. As a result, marketisation and privatisation of career services have led to an impoverished and fragmented supply of services. Greater attention by governments in career guidance policies for young people (and adults) is necessary to reduce the widening gap between ‘the haves and have nots’ in society. Failure to reduce labour market mismatch through new forms of careers dialogue is not only damaging and costly for individuals, families and employers, but for the taxpayer too.     

Thinking too much: introspection can reduce the quality of preferences and decisions

In Study 1, college students' preferences for different brands of strawberry jams were compared with experts' ratings of the jams. Students who analyzed why they felt the way they did agreed less with the experts than students who did not. In Study 2, college students' preferences for college courses were compared with expert opinion. Some students were asked to analyze reasons; others were asked to evaluate all attributes of all courses. Both kinds of introspection caused people to make choices that, compared with control subjects', corresponded less with expert opinion. Analyzing reasons can focus people's attention on nonoptimal criteria, causing them to base their subsequent choices on these criteria. Evaluating multiple attributes can moderate people's judgments, causing them to discriminate less between the different alternatives.     

The handicapped school leaver and the transition to work

Handicapped young people are disadvantaged in the search for work, and many of the most severely handicapped from special schools face particularly difficult problems in adjusting to the realities of the labour market. Careers advisers also face some acute difficulties in their interactions with handicapped young people. The relevant results of a recent national investigation into the employment experience of handicapped school leavers are examined, including information about careers advice and sources of information about jobs. It is argued that, despite the existence of careers officers who specialise in work with handicapped young people, careers guidance for this group is under-developed both inside and outside schools.     

Career Maturity in Young Adults With Learning Disabilities: What Employment Counselors Should Know

Increasing numbers of those with learning disabilities who are entering college have been found to have special needs related to both academic survival and career development that are often unrecognized and unmet in institutions of higher education. This article reviews research on the characteristics of young adults with learning disabilities, discusses factors that are associated with the career maturity of young adults with learning disabilities, and offers suggestions to employment counselors that would be useful when working with this population.     

Young people's career choices and careers guidance action planning: A case-study of training credits in action

A specific careers guidance action plan, used in conjunction with one of the original training credits pilot schemes, is investigated. Analysis revealed tensions between the pragmatically rational way in which young people reported making career decisions and the technically rational system of guidance built into the design of the scheme. These tensions created operational difficulties for careers officers, and raise important issues for further debate about the nature of careers education and guidance     

Is guidance an applied science?: The role of theory in the careers guidance interview

Some of the findings of a study investigating careers officers' use of theoretical models in the careers guidance interview are discussed. Data were collected through visits to institutions offering Diploma in Careers Guidance courses, a large-scale questionnaire survey of careers officers, and semi-structured interviews and group discussions. There was evidence that in initial training, theory is used to support, rather than determine, the development of skills. Results also suggested that practising careers officers are familiar with a fairly wide range of theories, although in their interviewing they tend to apply broad principles of theory, rather than specific elements. Careers officers who trained some time ago were less familiar with theories than were those who trained more recently, and there was no support for the hypothesis that long service leads to a greater recognition of the relevance of theories generally. Familiarity with guidance and counselling theories appears to be more influential than knowledge of career theories on the way careers officers think about interviewing. Overall, the findings cast doubt on the view that careers guidance is an applied science.