Gender Differences in Drinking Motivations and Outcomes

To investigate gender differences in the dynaijiics of alcohol use, we gathered self-report data from male and female college students. Results of our experiment showed that dominance power motivations were correlated with negative drinking outcomes for both men and women; assertiveness power motivations were associated with negative outcomes only for women. For both sexes, a higher proportion of positive social motivations was associated with fewer negative drinking outcomes. We expect that, in addition to the more traditionally defined needs for dominance power shown to be important for drinking among men, women may use alcohol in relation to needs for assertiveness and self-expression.     

Social anxiety, reasons for drinking, and college students

Recent research suggests that social anxiety may be associated with higher rates of alcohol problems in women, yet may be associated with lower levels of drinking in men. The current study investigated putative mechanisms that may underlie potential gender differences in the social anxiety-alcohol relationship. One hundred and eighteen college students (61.0% women) completed an interview assessing drinking behaviors and questionnaires measuring social anxiety, drinking motives, and drinking situations. Although college men and women both reported similar frequencies of drinking in positive situations and to enhance positive emotions, women reported drinking more often in negative situations and to cope with aversive emotions than men. Mediated moderation analyses suggested that women with social anxiety may be at greater risk of encountering adverse consequences because of their likelihood to drink to conform or to cope with the aversive affect they experience in negative situations. Conversely, when men experience high rates of adverse consequences, it may be due to drinking greater quantities of alcohol in positive situations. Highly socially anxious college men may drink less alcohol and experience fewer adverse consequences than their nonanxious or mildly anxious counterparts because they may find themselves in positive situations and drinking to enhance positive feelings less often, potentially due to avoidant behavior. These findings may help to explain why social anxiety serves as a potential risk factor for alcohol-related problems for college women, but a protective factor for college men.     

Possible contributors to the gender differences in alcohol use and problems

Research on alcohol use and problems has demonstrated a much higher rate of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) among men compared with women. The authors review the most frequently researched biological and psychosocial factors that may play a role in the gender differences in alcohol use and problems. Among the biological factors, women might carry a lower genetic risk for AUDs and tend to suffer more negative biological consequences from drinking as compared with men. Regarding psychosocial factors, men appear to be more likely than women to manifest certain risk factors for alcohol use and problems (e.g., fewer perceived social sanctions for drinking, positive expectancies for alcohol use, personality traits such as impulsivity) and have fewer protective factors. Although these findings have helped to explain some of the gender differences in alcohol use and problems, there are inconsistencies in the literature. Additionally, many studie may not have enough statistical power to detect gender differences. The authors suggest that the biological and social consequences of alcohol abuse for women may be especially potent protective factors against AUDs and discuss the possibility of public health campaigns developed on the basis of this idea.     

The relationship between attitude,assertiveness and condom use

The Australian study investigated condom-specific assertiveness and condom use as a means of prevention infection from sexually transmitted diseases. 211 men participated including 83 homosexual men (aged 19-62 years) and 128 heterosexual men (aged 17-49) who completed a questionnaire that comprised demographic details such as age, monogamy, and sexual activity as well as attitudinal and assertiveness measures. General assertiveness was measured by the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS) which had been widely used across a wide range of social situations. Assertiveness relating specifically to situations involving condoms was measured by the Condom Assertiveness Scale (CAS). Intention to use condoms was positively related to favorable attitudes, which were related to condom-specific assertiveness for both groups. For the heterosexual men only, general social assertiveness was negatively related to attitudes toward condoms. For both groups, the condom-specific measure of assertiveness was positively correlated with attitudes toward condoms. Condom-specific assertiveness was positively related to general social assertiveness as measured by the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule for the homosexual, but not for the heterosexual men. The negative relationship between general assertiveness and attitude to condoms among the heterosexual men implies that the risk reducing behavior of condom use did not seem to accord with the perceptions of masculinity and social assertiveness among heterosexual men. Thus, female partners of such heterosexual men exhibiting negative attitudes toward condom use combined with assertiveness would have to overcome resistance to insist on the use of condoms. Recently some advertising campaigns have been directed at women. The promotion of condom use among heterosexual men has to deal with the perceptions of condom use as unmasculine behavior.     

Alcohol consumption, drinking patterns, and alcohol problems among managerial versus non-managerial women and men

In the present study, we examined alcohol consumption and alcohol problems between managerial and nonmanagerial men and women. We also examined alcohol problems as a function of drinking context (i.e., when they drink and with whom they drink) for each of these four groups. Survey data and data from company records were collected from a large sample of blue and white collar employees (n = 2279). Participants completed a detailed questionnaire aimed at assessing many work-related attitudes, general mental and physical health-related perceptions, motivations for alcohol use, alcohol consumption indices, and alcohol problems. We found that several of the demographic variables differentially predicted alcohol consumption and problems for the four groups. In addition, drinking alone and immediately after work were associated with alcohol problems for women managers at a significantly higher rate than for the other groups of employees. These results support the assertion that more complex models are needed to understand the linkages between work and alcohol use. The research reported in this paper was supported by Grant AA 10690-02, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health.     

Alcohol consumption, drinking patterns, and alcohol problems among managerial versus non-managerial women and men

In the present study, we examined alcohol consumption and alcohol problems between managerial and nonmanagerial men and women. We also examined alcohol problems as a function of drinking context (i.e., when they drink and with whom they drink) for each of these four groups. Survey data and data from company records were collected from a large sample of blue and white collar employees (n = 2279). Participants completed a detailed questionnaire aimed at assessing many work-related attitudes, general mental and physical health-related perceptions, motivations for alcohol use, alcohol consumption indices, and alcohol problems. We found that several of the demographic variables differentially predicted alcohol consumption and problems for the four groups. In addition, drinking alone and immediately after work were associated with alcohol problems for women managers at a significantly higher rate than for the other groups of employees. These results support the assertion that more complex models are needed to understand the linkages between work and alcohol use. The research reported in this paper was supported by Grant AA 10690-02, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health.     

Motivational and Other Sources of Work Accomplishments in Mid–Life: A Longitudinal Study

ABSTRACT Earned Income and work accomplishment were determined at age 41 for 89 adults whose mothers had been interviewed for their child-rearing practices when the adults were 5 years old. At age 31, in spontaneous thought but not self-report, n Achievement predicted earned income and socialized power motivation predicted work accomplishment at age 41. Hardships (or "bad breaks") during childhood and adolescence predicted work outcomes for both men and women, as did education for men. Parenting achievement pressure in the first 2 years of life was associated with adult n Achievement and earned income, while moderate encouragement of assertiveness by mothers who were warm to boys and cool to girls was associated with adult socialized power motivation and work accomplishment. Controls for social class of origin, IQ, temperament, and education did not explain the relations between parenting, motivation, and work outcomes, although education played a larger role for men than women who worked both inside and outside the home.     

Stages of change for health-related behaviours in 18 year-old Australians

Abstract This study investigated the validity of a Stages of Change algorithm with respect to independent measures of physical activity and fitness. dietary intake and alcohol consumption in 18 year-old Ausmlian men (n = 301) and women (n = 282). Stage of Change categories were related to fat and fibre intakes in men and fibre intake in women as well as hit and vegetable intakes in men and women. Physical activity and fitness for men and women also showed significant linear associations with Stage of Change categories. Alcohol consumption was significantly associated with Stage of Change categories for men but not for women although recorded alcohol consumption was very variable for women. However, the algorithm was valid for both men and women when drinking alcohol consistent with national guidelines on safe drinking was used. In summary, with reference to actual health behaviours, the Stages of Change algorithm was valid for young men and women for diet. physical activity and alcohol drinking. Independent behavioural data were not available for smoking behaviours. Using the algorithm, there were significant associations in men between prccontemplation status for diet and drinking and diet and physical activity, in women between diet and smoking and in both men and women between drinking and smoking. Covariance between precontemplation status for different health behaviours therefore suggests the need for multimodal interventions.     

Sexual Hookups and Alcohol Consumption Among African American and Caucasian College Students: A Pilot Study

This study investigated college students’ sexual hooking up and its associations with alcohol consumption for men and women; furthermore, potential differences related to ethnicity were investigated. Students at a midsized southeastern university who identified as Caucasian or African American (N = 227) completed a survey assessing sexual behavior, demographics, and alcohol consumption. Heavy drinking was associated with ever hooking up, number of hookup partners, hookup frequency, and level of sexual contact during hooking up for Caucasian students, but not for their African American peers. Among Caucasians, moderate drinking men reported more intense sexual contact during hookups than their female peers who were moderate drinkers; sexual contact levels were more similar for men and women who were either nondrinkers or heavy drinkers. Limitations and strengths are discussed, as are ideas for future studies on hooking up and for educational efforts to protect against potentially negative outcomes of hooking up.     

Predictors of heavy drinking and drinking problems over the first 4 years of marriage.

This study investigated the factors predictive of heavy drinking and drinking problems over the early years of marriage, focusing on premarital drinking and the relatively stable individual risk and protective factors that were present prior to marriage and on social-interpersonal factors that may change or emerge over marriage. Newlywed couples were assessed at the time of marriage and at the 1st, 2nd, and 4th anniversaries with respect to frequency of heavy drinking and the extent of drinking problems and a variety of factors that have been found to be predictive of adult alcohol problems. The results indicated that antisocial characteristics, family history of alcoholism, negative affect, and alcohol expectancies were related to heavy drinking and alcohol problems at the time of marriage. Changes after marriage were predicted by the drinking of one's partner and of one's peers and by alcohol expectancies for social/physical pleasure for both men and women. In addition, the quality of the marriage was longitudinally protective from the experience of alcohol problems for both men and women, although it was not related to changes in heavy drinking.     

Stages of change for health-related behaviours in 18 year-old Australians

Abstract

This study investigated the validity of a Stages of Change algorithm with respect to independent measures of physical activity and fitness. dietary intake and alcohol consumption in 18 year-old Ausmlian men (n = 301) and women (n = 282). Stage of Change categories were related to fat and fibre intakes in men and fibre intake in women as well as hit and vegetable intakes in men and women. Physical activity and fitness for men and women also showed significant linear associations with Stage of Change categories. Alcohol consumption was significantly associated with Stage of Change categories for men but not for women although recorded alcohol consumption was very variable for women. However, the algorithm was valid for both men and women when drinking alcohol consistent with national guidelines on safe drinking was used. In summary, with reference to actual health behaviours, the Stages of Change algorithm was valid for young men and women for diet. physical activity and alcohol drinking. Independent behavioural data were not available for smoking behaviours. Using the algorithm, there were significant associations in men between prccontemplation status for diet and drinking and diet and physical activity, in women between diet and smoking and in both men and women between drinking and smoking. Covariance between precontemplation status for different health behaviours therefore suggests the need for multimodal interventions.     

Exploring Correlates of Alcohol-Specific Social Reactions in Alcohol-Involved Sexual Assaults

This exploratory study examined demographic, assault, and disclosure factors as predictors of survivors’ decisions to disclose preassault alcohol use and social reactions to their preassault alcohol use. Of survivors drinking prior to assault, those with more education and greater alcohol impairment or resistance during assault were more likely to disclose preassault drinking. Of women disclosing preassault drinking, those with more education and more violent assaults received more negative social reactions specific to their preassault drinking. Such negative reactions were more common for those telling parents, police, or medical professionals. Women with less education received more positive and negative social reactions specific to their preassault drinking. Disclosing preassault drinking in greater detail was related to positive social reactions specific to preassault drinking and greater alcohol impairment during assault was associated with both positive and negative social reactions specific to preassault drinking. Implications for research and intervention are provided for survivors disclosing alcohol-related sexual assaults.     

Stress and alcohol use: moderating effects of gender, coping, and alcohol expectancies.

A stressor vulnerability model of stress-induced drinking was tested in a stratified random sample of 1,316 Black and White adult drinkers. Stressors were highly predictive of both alcohol use and drinking problems among men who relied on avoidant forms of emotion coping or held strong positive expectancies for alcohol's effects and accounted for more than 35% of the variance in alcohol use among the subgroup of men who were high in both vulnerability factors. In contrast, stressors were negatively related among men who were low in both and were unrelated among women regardless of their coping or expectancies. These findings suggest that tension reduction theories of alcohol use are overly broad and that individual characteristics must be considered to account for stress-related effects on alcohol use and abuse.     

Gender Differences in the Relationship of Drinking Motivations and Outcomes

Questionnaire data were used to test the hypothesis that stated motivations for drinking would be more directly related to drinking outcomes among adolescent girls than among adolescent boys. Evidence in support of this hypothesis was found, and we suggest that this gender difference might be due to different norms and role expectations in regard to drinking by boys and men and girls and women in our society.     

Gender differences in the relationship of drinking motivations and outcomes

Questionnaire data were used to test the hypothesis that stated motivations for drinking would be more directly related to drinking outcomes among adolescent girls than among adolescent boys. Evidence in support of this hypothesis was found, and we suggest that this gender difference might be due to different norms and role expectations in regard to drinking by boys and men and girls and women in our society.     

Daily alcohol use and romantic relationship functioning: evidence of bidirectional, gender-, and context-specific effects

Whether beneficial or harmful, cause or effect, the nature of associations between drinking and close relationship processes remains unclear. The present study examined these issues by using daily reports of alcohol use and relationship functioning from 69 heterosexual couples over 3 weeks. Multilevel modeling indicated that alcohol had both positive and negative effects on relationship processes and that effects were more positive for women, and when small amounts were consumed, partners drank together, or they consumed similar amounts. Interestingly, however, positive effects on intimacy and partner behaviors were not mediated by sexual contact. In the reverse direction, women were found to drink more than men in response to relationship difficulties and feeling disconnected from their partner (i.e., low intimacy). Overall findings indicate that associations between drinking and relationship processes are complex and bidirectional and that they may be more important for women than men.     

‘That's OK. He's a guy’: A mixed-methods study of gender double-standards for alcohol use

Although drinking and drunkenness have traditionally been considered masculine behaviours, young women's alcohol consumption has increased in recent years. This mixed methods study was conducted to examine the extent to which young people endorse gender double-standards for alcohol use – i.e., less acceptance of drinking and drunkenness in women than men – and how these influence men's and women's alcohol consumption. A sample of 731 English university students completed an online survey of gender role attitudes, beliefs about the gendered nature of alcohol use and recent alcohol consumption. Sixteen participants were then purposively selected for individual interviews: eight women and men with the most egalitarian gender role beliefs, and eight women and men with the least egalitarian beliefs. The two sets of data revealed that although there were few sex differences in actual levels of drinking or drunkenness, gender double-standards for alcohol use persist: beer drinking, binge drinking and public drunkenness tended to be perceived as masculine, and even the most egalitarian respondents were more judgemental of women's drinking. Participants modified their drinking style so as to maintain a desired gender identity. Although gender double-standards could be a focus of interventions to encourage moderate drinking, such approaches could reinforce gender inequalities.     

ALCOHOL AND SEXUAL AGGRESSION IN A NATIONAL SAMPLE OF COLLEGE MEN

Alcohol use prior to sexual assault by both offenders and their victims may be associated with the severity of sexual aggression men commit against women. Little research has explored the pathways (e.g., social context, behavior) through which alcohol may affect outcomes of sexual attacks. The present study analyzed the role of alcohol in sexual assaults (N = 694) committed by men identified from a national sample (N = 2,972) of male college students completing a survey. Interactions of alcohol use with assault variables did not suggest any synergistic role of alcohol use in predicting sexual aggression severity. Path analysis showed, however, that offender propensity to abuse alcohol and victim preassault alcohol use were each both directly and indirectly related to sexual aggression severity, whereas offender preassault alcohol use was not directly related to sexual aggression severity. This study suggests that alcohol use plays both direct and indirect roles in the outcomes of sexual assaults. Rape and alcohol abuse prevention efforts can benefit from incorporating information about alcohol's role in different assault contexts.     

Sociodemographic factors,religiosity, academic performance,and substance use among first-year university students in South Africa

The purpose of this study was to identify the relationships among sociodemographic variables, family background, religiosity, course of study, academic performance, and substance use. The sample included 799 first-year students in the age range of 16 to 49 years (M age 20.1 yr., SD = 3.2) chosen at random from the University of the North in South Africa. A Model Core Questionnaire from the WHO on Substance use was administered. Analysis indicated that women smoked tobacco or cannabis and drank less than men, while women took more stimulants and other opiate type drugs than men. Low scores on religiosity was a predictor for past-month tobacco use alcohol use, binge drinking, cannabis use, and having a drinking or drug problem now. Being a member of a Protestant denominational church or a Roman Catholic was a predictor for past-month tobacco and alcohol use. A family history of drinking or drug problems and being a social science or humanities student were predictive for a current alcohol or drug problem. Economic status, education of parents. living arrangement. and rural-urban differences were not associated with substance use. Findings have implications for prevention programmes.