Motor training at 3 months affects object exploration 12 months later

The development of new motor skills alters how infants interact with objects and people. Consequently, it has been suggested that motor skills may initiate a cascade of events influencing subsequent development. However, only correlational evidence for this assumption has been obtained thus far. The current study addressed this question experimentally by systematically varying reaching experiences in 40 three‐month‐old infants who were not reaching on their own yet and examining their object engagement in a longitudinal follow‐up assessment 12 months later. Results revealed increased object exploration and attention focusing skills in 15‐month‐old infants who experienced active reaching at 3 months of age compared to untrained infants or infants who only passively experienced reaching. Further, grasping activity after – but not before – reaching training predicted infants’ object exploration 12 months later. These findings provide evidence for the long‐term effects of reaching experiences and illustrate the cascading effects initiated by early motor skills.     

Training of 7-month-old infants’ manual object exploration skills: Effects of active and observational experience

In the present study, a fine motor training was developed and evaluated in which infants were trained to manually explore objects in an advanced manner. Fifty 7-month-old infants were randomly assigned to three different training conditions: (1) to an active manual exploration training, in which they learned to explore objects efficiently, (2) to an observational manual exploration training, in which they observed how an adult performed sophisticated actions on objects, or (3) to a control group receiving no training. The results impressively indicate that infants with a low level of object exploration skill prior to the training showed the most training effects as compared to infants with proficient object exploratory actions. Interestingly, this differential training effect was true for both the active and observational training, highlighting the role of social learning in infancy. Importantly, our study shows for the first time the impact of normal individual variation in infants’ manual object exploration skills on the effects of a fine motor training.     

DIMENSION ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEPTION OF MUSICAL STYLE

W edin , L. Dimension analysis of the perception of musical style. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10, 9 7–108.-The subjective similarity of ten short excerpts from musical works ranging over the period of 1720–1890 was studied by (I) the direct multidimensional ratio scaling method and (2) by the method of similarity analysis. Factor analysis extracted three or four factors depending on the degree of musical training of the subjects. The differentiation and inter-pretability of the factors were higher for subjects with more musical training and interest. The factors were labeled 'Baroque', 'Rococo', 'Viennese classicism' and 'Romanticism'.     

知识类别和特点对内隐序列学习的影响

用序列学习中的反应时和错误个数间接测量被试的内隐知识,用再认成绩和预测成绩直接测量被试的外显知识,通过倒转不同的规则探讨了知识类别和特点对内隐序列学习的影响。结果表明：(1)内隐学习和外显学习可能分别依赖于两个独立的学习系统,且互不干扰;(2)当内隐序列学习既包含运动知识又包含概念知识时,知识类别和特点影响被试对序列知识的获得,被试较易获得运动知识;(3)在内隐序列学习中练习的数量也影响被试对序列知识的获得,序列学习是一个动态的过程。     

Physical activity in infants with Down syndrome receiving a treadmill intervention

Despite the recognized relevance of physical activity in the development and health of children, assessment of physical activity levels (PA-level) in infancy is limited, especially in infants with Down syndrome (DS). Increasing PA-level using a treadmill training (TMT) intervention may benefit infants with motor delays. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a higher intensity, individualized TMT protocol (HI) would elicit immediate and short-term higher PA-level in infants with DS than a lower intensity, generalized training protocol (LG).Thirty infants with DS were randomly assigned to the LG or the HI group. Training was terminated when the infants could walk three steps independently. Activity monitors were placed on infants’ trunks and legs for a 24-h period every other month during the intervention phase, and at set intervals 1-year post-independent walking onset. Data were analyzed to separate sedentary-to-light activity (Lowact) and moderate-to-vigorous activity (Highact).Overall our results demonstrate that infants receiving the HI TMT had higher levels of Highact than infants in the LG group, factoring out the activity produced by the intervention itself. Infants in the LG group spent more time in Lowact than the HI group. In addition, these results seemed to be retained during the post-intervention follow-up. Despite these exciting results, more work is needed to understand the relationship of the intensity of TMT on PA-level in infants with DS, and whether PA-level and TMT are related to motor milestone achievement and/or health benefits.     

Baby steps: investigating the development of perceptual–motor couplings in infancy

There are cells in our motor cortex that fire both when we perform and when we observe similar actions. It has been suggested that these perceptual‐motor couplings in the brain develop through associative learning during correlated sensorimotor experience. Although studies with adult participants have provided support for this hypothesis, there is no direct evidence that associative learning also underlies the initial formation of perceptual–motor couplings in the developing brain. With the present study we addressed this question by manipulating infants’ opportunities to associate the visual and motor representation of a novel action, and by investigating how this influenced their sensorimotor cortex activation when they observed this action performed by others. Pre‐walking 7–9‐month‐old infants performed stepping movements on an infant treadmill while they either observed their own real‐time leg movements (Contingent group) or the previously recorded leg movements of another infant (Non‐contingent control group). Infants in a second control group did not perform any steps and only received visual experience with the stepping actions. Before and after the training period we measured infants’ sensorimotor alpha suppression, as an index of sensorimotor cortex activation, while they watched videos of other infants’ stepping actions. While we did not find greater sensorimotor alpha suppression following training in the Contingent group as a whole, we nevertheless found that the strength of the visuomotor contingency experienced during training predicted the amount of sensorimotor alpha suppression at post‐test in this group. We did not find any effects of motor experience alone. These results suggest that the development of perceptual–motor couplings in the infant brain is likely to be supported by associative learning during correlated visuomotor experience.     

INTEGRATING ERRORS INTO THE TRAINING PROCESS: THE FUNCTION OF ERROR MANAGEMENT INSTRUCTIONS AND THE ROLE OF GOAL ORIENTATION

Error management training explicitly allows participants to make errors. We examined the effects of error management instructions ("rules of thumb" designed to reduce the negative emotional effects of errors), goal orientation (learning goal, prove goal, and avoidance goal orientations) and attribute x treatment interactions on performance. A randomized experiment with 87 participants consisting of 3 training procedures for learning to work with a computer program was conducted: (a) error training with error management instructions, (b) error training without error management instructions; and (c) a group that was prevented from making errors. Results showed that short-and medium-term performance (near and far transfer) was superior for participants of the error training that included error management instructions, compared with the two other training conditions. Thus, error management instructions were crucial for the high performance effects of error training. Prove and avoidance goal orientation interacted with training conditions.     

Effects of maternal postpartum depression in a well‐resourced sample: Early concurrent and long‐term effects on infant cognitive,language, and motor development

This study examined early and long‐term effects of maternal postpartum depression on cognitive, language, and motor development in infants of clinically depressed mothers. Participants were 83 mothers and their full‐term born children from the urban region of Copenhagen, Denmark. Of this group, 28 mothers were diagnosed with postnatal depression three to four months postpartum in a diagnostic interview. Cognitive, language, and motor development was assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development third edition, when the infants were 4 and 13 months of age. We found that maternal postpartum depression was associated with poorer cognitive development at infant age four months, the effect size being large (Cohen's d = 0.8) and with similar effects for boys and girls. At 13 months of age infants of clinical mothers did not differ from infants of non‐clinical mothers. At this time most (79%) of the clinical mothers were no longer, or not again, depressed. These results may indicate that maternal depression can have an acute, concurrent effect on infant cognitive development as early as at four months postpartum. At the same time, in the absence of other risk factors, this effect may not be enduring. The main weaknesses of the study include the relatively small sample size and that depression scores were only available for 35 of the non‐clinical mothers at 13 months.     

Visual Cues Generated During Action Facilitate 14-Month-Old Infants’ Mental Rotation

Although action experience has been shown to enhance the development of spatial cognition, the mechanism underlying the effects of action is still unclear. The present research examined the role of visual cues generated during action in promoting infants’ mental rotation. We sought to clarify the underlying mechanism by decoupling different aspects of action experience and choosing to manipulate the visual aspect while holding other aspects constant. Fourteen-month-old infants were given opportunities to rotate a cylinder placed on a turntable; the cylinder was decorated with vertical or horizontal stripes. If the effects of action hinge on the quality of visual cues generated during action, infants should benefit more from rotating the cylinder with vertical stripes as they generate richer cues when each stripe moves laterally with the cylinder. As predicted, the infants in the vertical-stripe condition looked significantly longer at an improbable outcome than at a probable outcome of a hidden-rotation event, whereas those in the horizontal-stripe condition looked about equally at the 2 outcomes. The results suggest that the effects of action on mental rotation are derived not from motor experience alone, but from integrating motor and visual experiences.     

Understanding the effects of one's actions upon hidden objects and the development of search behaviour in 7‐month‐old infants

Infants' understanding of how their actions affect the visibility of hidden objects may be a crucial aspect of the development of search behaviour. To investigate this possibility, 7‐month‐old infants took part in a two‐day training study. At the start of the first session, and at the end of the second, all infants performed a search task with a hiding‐well. On both days, infants had an additional training experience. The ‘Agency group’ learnt to spin a turntable to reveal a hidden toy, whilst the ‘Means‐End’ group learnt the same means‐end motor action, but the toy was always visible. The Agency group showed greater improvement on the hiding‐well search task following their training experience. We suggest that the Agency group's turntable experience was effective because it provided the experience of bringing objects back into visibility by one's actions. Further, the performance of the Agency group demonstrates generalized transfer of learning across situations with both different motor actions and stimuli in infants as young as 7 months.     

Unweighting infants reveals hidden motor skills

We investigated the role of rate limiting factors in development using walking as a model system. The achievement of bipedal posture and locomotion are among the most significant achievements in an infant's first year, with poor balance and weak muscles long proposed as the rate limiting factors. Compensating for either may reveal upright motor skill that has not yet emerged in the infant's natural repertoire. To probe this question, we unweighted prewalking infants and measured their performance in various standing and walking behaviors while unweighted compared to baseline. Our secondary objective was to determine if the influence of unweighting was related to infants’ locomotor experience. Infants stood unsupported for longer durations with 20% or 40% unweighting. Infants took more independent steps and more steps with one hand held with 40% unweighting. No differences in transition to/from standing were observed. Locomotor experience was related to the influence of unweighting during cruising and walking with a push toy. This is the first report of more advanced motor skills—longer periods of unsupported standing and the emergence of independent walking—revealed by unweighting infants. We interpret our observations to suggest that the refinement of motor control needed to support bipedal posture and locomotion precedes the functional emergence of these skills in infants. In other words, the musculoskeletal components required for walking are slower to develop than the neurological factors – and consequently may be the rate limiters. We further suggest that training regimens including unweighting should be explored in infants with motor delays.     

THE PERILS OF PARTICIPATION: EFFECTS OF CHOICE OF TRAINING ON TRAINEE MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

This study presents an empirical test of the effects of trainee choice of training on subsequent motivation and learning. 207 trainees were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) no choice of training; (b) choice of training–but choice not received; (c) choice of training–with choice received. A pilot study was used to create a unique training context whereby trainees could be differentiated on the three conditions of choice, while all ultimately received the identical training module. Results indicated that, after controlling for cognitive ability, those trainees having a choice of training did have greater motivation to learn, provided they were ultimately given the training of their choice. On the other hand, trainees allowed to choose but whose choice was not the training module subsequently delivered were less motivated and learned less than those not asked to participate in the choice of training at all. These findings suggest that, in an organizational training context, there may be some "perils of participation." Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

Posttraumatic recovery of traumatized newborns: effects on neuromotor and cognitive development during their first 6 months

Recovery after perinatal cerebral traumatism was studied in a group of 20 traumatized infants. The effects on the sequence of development during the next 6 months were observed for both motor and cognitive development and were compared with a control group of 20 normal babies. Results showed a significant delay for the abnormal group and a different recovery pattern between these two aspects of development. Motor development reached a normal level at 4 months, whereas cognitive development was still impaired at 6 months. These results were discussed in terms of possibly longer effects of perinatal traumatism on higher cortical functions than on motor functions.     

Opportunities for learning and social interaction in infant sitting: Effects of sitting support,sitting skill,and gross motor delay

The development of independent sitting changes everyday opportunities for learning and has cascading effects on cognitive and language development. Prior to independent sitting, infants experience the sitting position with physical support from caregivers. Why does supported sitting not provide the same input for learning that is experienced in independent sitting? This question is especially relevant for infants with gross motor delay, who require support in sitting for many months after typically developing infants sit independently. We observed infants with typical development (n = 34, ages 4–7 months) and infants with gross motor delay (n = 128, ages 7–16 months) in early stages of sitting development, and their caregivers, in a dyadic play observation. We predicted that infants who required caregiver support for sitting would spend more time facing away from the caregiver and less time contacting objects than infants who could sit independently. We also predicted that caregivers of supported sitters would spend less time contacting objects because their hands would be full supporting their infants. Our first two hypotheses were confirmed; however, caregivers spent surprisingly little time using both hands to provide support, and caregivers of supported sitters spent more time contacting objects than caregivers of independent sitters. Similar patterns were seen in the group of typically developing infants and the infants with motor delay. Our findings suggest that independent sitting and supported sitting provide qualitatively distinct experiences with different implications for social interaction and learning opportunities.

Highlights

• During seated free play, supported sitters spent more time facing away from their caregivers and less time handling objects than independent sitters.
• Caregivers who spent more time supporting infants with both hands spent less time handling objects; however, caregivers mostly supported infants with one or no hands.
• A continuous measure of sitting skill did not uniquely contribute to these behaviors beyond the effect of binary sitting support (supported vs. independent sitter).
• The pattern of results was similar for typically developing infants and infants with gross motor delay, despite differences in age.

     

Practices and representations of child care and motor development among West Africans in Paris

Massage techniques and postural manipulation used by West African women immigrants in Paris were studied, with the aim of demonstrating that culturally regulated caretaking practices have an influence on infant motor development. Twenty-five infants were observed between the ages of 3 and 12 months and 9 and 15 months. Frequency of massage and its accompanying set of physical exercises were found to be related to age at onset of independent walking. The findings show that infants receiving daily massage walk significantly earlier than infants who do not receive massage, thus confirming other reports that vestibular and postural stimulation have a positive effect on motor development. These results are discussed in relation to the observed frequencey of contact and of physical games with the caregiver for a smaller sample of three infants, and to parental expectations about the age of acquisition of certain cognitive and motor abilities. African immigrant mothers expect their infants to sit and to walk earlier than French mothers. The conclusion emphasizes the contribution of social anthropology, which shows that in all cultures, physical development and body changes elicit symbolic practices and a search for explanation.     

THE INFLUENCE OF TRAINING ON THE LEVEL OF TEST PERFORMANCE AND THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

An attempt was made to study whether it is possible by specific training on one test to produce changes in the level of performance on similar tests and in the factor structure of a set of intelligence tests. Considerable improvement occurred in the level of performance on the test on which training was given, but no significant transfer effects to the performance on other tests were found. Slight differentiation was observed in the factor structure.     

定量运动负荷和个性特征对动觉准确性和动作稳定性的影响

目的在于了解个性特征和定量运动负荷与同射箭运动员技术水平密切相关的肘关节动觉方位准确性和手动作稳定性的关系。研究结果表明：个性特征对肘关节动觉方位准确性和手动作稳定性的影响不显著;定量运动负荷可以使肘关节动觉方位准确性明显提高,而手动作稳定性变化不显著。本研究初步证明了韩国射箭训练中利用跑步等手段使运动员处于较高心率之下进行射准练习的方法是实用有效的。     

The joint role of trained,untrained, and observed actions at the origins of goal recognition

Recent findings across a variety of domains reveal the benefits of self-produced experience on object exploration, object knowledge, attention, and action perception. The influence of active experience may be particularly important in infancy, when motor development is undergoing great changes. Despite the importance of self-produced experience, we know that infants and young children are eventually able to gain knowledge through purely observational experience. In the current work, three-month-old infants were given experience with object-directed actions in one of three forms and their recognition of the goal of grasping actions was then assessed in a habituation paradigm. All infants were given the chance to manually interact with the toys without assistance (a difficult task for most three-month-olds). Two of the three groups were then given additional experience with object-directed actions, either through active training (in which Velcro mittens helped infants act more efficiently) or observational training. Findings support the conclusion that self-produced experience is uniquely informative for action perception and suggest that individual differences in spontaneous motor activity may interact with observational experience to inform action perception early in life.     

How are social-emotional and behavioral competences and problems at age 1 year associated with infant motor development? A general population study

Based on limitations in previous research evidence, we concluded that more research is needed for deeper understanding of how social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) outcomes among infant-toddler-aged children in the general population are associated with early motor development. In this study, we investigated associations between early competencies and problems, as measured by the Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA), and the timing of achievement of the main gross and fine motor milestones usually attained during the first year of life in a general population context. The study sample consisted of 515 infants (mean age 12.9 [SD 0.9] months) and their parents (514 mothers, 434 fathers), who were recruited in child health centers in Northern Finland. The infants were divided into two groups, based on their BITSEA screen status, and motor milestone achievement ages were compared across BITSEA screen status No Concern and Of-Concern infants. An Of-Concern screen status on the maternal and paternal Competence scale and Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) item cluster was associated with later infant achievement ages for gross motor milestones. By contrast, infants who were screened to be in the Of-Concern range on the maternal Problem scale achieved gross motor milestones earlier than infants with the corresponding No Concern screen status. No significant associations were found between the paternal Problem scale screen status and infant motor development. In further analyses, the strongest associations were found between an Of-Concern screen status on the paternal Competence scale and ASD item cluster and infant motor development. The findings indicate that the inclusion of infant motor developmental information may assist early identification and the clinical interpretation of parental reports of early SEB problems. Clinical implications of the current findings are discussed in the paper.     

THE DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONAL CONTROL OF READING-COMPREHENSION BEHAVIOR1

Reading comprehension, indicated by motor behavior and multiple-choice picture selection called for in written instructions, was taught to an autistic child using verbal prompts, modelling, and physical guidance. The child was rewarded for correct behaviors to training items; nonrewarded probes were used to assess generalization. Probable maintaining events were assessed through their sequential removal in a reversal design. Results showed: (a) following acquisition, performance was maintained at a near-100% level when candy, praise, attention, and training were removed, (b) absence of other persons was correlated with a marked decrease in performance, whereas their presence was associated with performance at near 100%, and (c) performance generalized to probes and across experimenters. Rewards, which may have been reinforcing during acquisition, did not appear necessary to maintain later performance. Instead, presence of others (a setting event) was demonstrated to have control over maintained performance.